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#4975 De: José Geraldo Mattos <geraldomattos@...>
Data: Sex, 20 de Ago de 2004 9:35 am
Assunto: Convite para palestra de astronomia
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CONVITE PARA PALESTRA DE ASTRONOMIA               

      

Dando continuidade ao cíclo de palestras públicas, o Grupo de Estudos de Astronomia do Planetário da UFSC, tem o prazer de convidar você, para a palestra intitulada:"Cassini, Huygens: A Missão  ".

Palestrantes: Alfredo Martins

Data: 20 de agosto de 2004 - Sexta Feira

Local: Anfiteatro do Planetário

Endereço: Florianópolis Planetário, Campus Universitário Trindade

Horário: 20:00 hs

Entrada franca

Traga sua família, traga seus amigos!

http://www.gea.org.br/programacao.html

José Geraldo Mattos

"Todas as menssagens enviadas por mim estão protegidas contra vírus"
 ___________________________________________
Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina
HU - Serviço de Controle Financeiro S/N
Trindade, Florianópolis, SC,Brasil
CEP 88.049-000 Fone (48) 9914.5078 ( 48) 331.9868
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#4976 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
Data: Sex, 20 de Ago de 2004 9:45 am
Assunto: Cientistas teleportam dados entre átomos por 600 metros
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Cientistas teleportam dados entre átomos por 600 metros

 da Folha Online

Físicos realizaram com sucesso o teleporte de características entre dois átomos separados por uma distância de 600 metros na Áustria.

O feito, descrito hoje na revista "Nature", usa um princípio que já era chamado por Einstein de "fantasmagórico" e deve ajudar a impulsionar a computação quântica.

Há dois anos, cientistas da Universidade Nacional da Austrália já haviam relatado sucesso com experiências semelhantes. Porém, eles não trabalharam com partículas maciças, mas com um feixe de laser, que saltou de um ponto a outro em uma minúscula fração de segundo.

Estado quântico

Pesquisadores da Universidade de Viena e da Academia Austríaca de Ciência conectaram os dois lados do rio Danúbio com um cabo subterrâneo de fibra ótica. O experimento consistiu em transmitir características entre um par de átomos de cálcio --o "estado quântico" [complexa combinação de feições] de um foi transmitido para o outro.

Para isso, os cientistas usaram um princípio da física conhecido como "emaranhamento". Einstein brincava com o fenômeno e o chamava de "ação fantasma à distância" --dois átomos têm seu destino "conectado" e um funciona como espelho do outro.

Se um deles sofrer algum tipo de alteração em suas características, o outro automaticamente assume as mesmas feições (ou então feições opostas), sem que importe a distância que física que os separa.

Poucos centímetros

Na mesma edição da revista, cientistas norte-americanos relatam um feito semelhante, só que com átomos de Belírio.

Mas o experimento chefiado por David Wineland, do Instituto Nacional de Padrões e Tecnologia de Boulder, Colorado (EUA), só conseguiu teleportar características por poucos centímetros.

O teleporte de informações entre átomos é tido como a chave para poderosos computadores quânticos, que devem começar a surgir em escala daqui uma década, segundo Wineland.

Satélites

Para Rupert Ursin, co-autor do projeto austríaco, a importância do feito é que ele aconteceu em "condições reais".

"O que nos interessava era saber se poderíamos fazer isso fora de um ambiente de laboratório, em um lugar semelhante ao usado hoje para as comunicações de fibra ótica", disse. "Isso é importante se estamos falando de investimento financeiro em comunicação quântica."

Ursin disse que o próximo passo seria tentar estabelecer o teleporte de partículas usando satélites.

Com agências internacionais

Especial

  • Arquivo: Veja o que já foi publicado sobre teletransporte



  •  
    Céu claro para todos!
    José Geraldo Mattos - Moderador
     
    "A mente que se abre a uma nova idéia,  jamais voltará ao seu tamanho original"(Albert Einstein)
     


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    #4977 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Sex, 20 de Ago de 2004 9:47 am
    Assunto: Sistema Solar pode ser raro, diz estudo
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    Sistema Solar pode ser raro, diz estudo

    SALVADOR NOGUEIRA
    da Folha de S.Paulo

    Dizer que estamos sós no Universo pode até ser um exagero. Mas é possível que planetas como a Terra sejam bem raros, afinal. É o que sugere um novo estudo conduzido por Martin Beer, um astrônomo da Universidade de Leicester, no Reino Unido.

    Em cooperação com pesquisadores nos EUA, ele aponta que todos os sistemas planetários descobertos até agora, mais de uma centena, não devem ter planetas com a superfície rochosa, como os que existem no Sistema Solar. Isso porque, segundo o grupo, esses planetas extra-solares teriam se formado de um jeito diferente.

    A principal hipótese para explicar a formação de planetas é a chamada acreção. Uma estrela, assim que nasce, possui um disco de poeira e gás ao seu redor --os restos de sua formação. A idéia é que essa poeira começa a se aglutinar e a formar rochas cada vez maiores, que no fim dão origem aos planetas rochosos, como Mercúrio, Vênus, Terra e Marte.

    Enquanto isso está acontecendo, o vento estelar --a corrente de partículas emanadas do astro-- já "varreu" a maior parte do gás no disco, que acaba sobrando só nas regiões mais longínquas, onde se acumula em torno de pedaços de rocha, formando enorme bolas gasosas. Desse modo nasceriam os planetas gigantes, como Júpiter, Saturno, Urano e Netuno.

    O modelo funciona mais ou menos bem para o Sistema Solar, mas tem uma dificuldade danada para explicar os planetas descobertos em torno de outras estrelas desde 1995 --gigantes gasosos localizados muito perto do astro central ou em órbitas muito mais achatadas que as solares.

    Com isso, ganhou força um outro modelo de formação planetária, que fala do colapso gravitacional do disco, sem acreção. Por alguns distúrbios no disco logo após o nascimento da estrela, o gás de cara já começa a se aglutinar na forma de gigantes gasosos.

    Para Beer e colegas, essa pode ser a principal explicação para a existência de sistemas tão diferentes do solar --eles teriam se formado por colapso gravitacional, que dispensa astros rochosos como a Terra, e os planetas do Sol teriam nascido por acreção.

    "Se assim for, pode ser que nenhum dos sistemas planetários observados tenha grande chance de abrigar um planeta tipo Terra", escreveram os pesquisadores em um artigo publicado no periódico britânico "Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society".

    Ainda há muitos desafios para que os cientistas entendam que circunstâncias levam à formação de que tipo de sistema. É possível que a configuração do Sistema Solar seja rara --com base nos dados já coletados, ela de fato é.

    Mas também é verdade que o método de detecção de planetas extra-solares --que hoje só funciona para gigantes gasosos-- favorece a localização daqueles que giram mais perto de sua estrela, criando um viés de observação.

    Resta então, por ora, tentar um palpite. "Suspeito que será menos que 10%", diz Paul Butler, da Instituição Carnegie de Washington, um dos principais caçadores de planetas extra-solares.

    Especial

  • Arquivo: veja o que já foi publicado sobre o Sistema Solar



  •  
    Céu claro para todos!
    José Geraldo Mattos - Moderador
     
    "A mente que se abre a uma nova idéia,  jamais voltará ao seu tamanho original"(Albert Einstein)
     


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    #4978 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Sex, 20 de Ago de 2004 9:50 am
    Assunto: Tantalizing clues about possible Mars water
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    Tantalizing clues about possible Mars water

    Thursday, August 19, 2004 Posted: 6:09 AM EDT (1009 GMT)

    Image
    This approximate true-color image taken by the Rover Spirit shows a rock outcrop and the sweeping plains of Gusev Crater.
    YOUR E-MAIL ALERTS
    National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
    Jet Propulsion Laboratory
    Space Exploration

    LOS ANGELES, California (Reuters) -- The hills of Mars yielded more tantalizing clues about how water shaped the Red Planet in tests by NASA's robotic geologist, Spirit, while its twin, Opportunity, observed the deep crater it climbed into two months ago, scientists said on Wednesday.

    Scientists at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California said Spirit discovered a swath of bedrock that showed signs of being altered by water and may yield clues about the planet's primordial atmosphere.

    Scientist believe the bedrock was thrust up from below the lava-covered surface of the vast Gusev Crater, where Spirit landed January 3 and spent months crossing to arrive at a series of promontories dubbed the Columbia Hills.

    For the past week, the rover has conducted a series of tests on a rock nicknamed Clovis that is perched on a spur about 30 feet (9 meters) above the plain, chief scientist Steve Squyres said at a briefing on Wednesday.

    Both Spirit and Opportunity found ancient evidence of water on Mars earlier in their missions but new data recorded by Spirit's scientific instruments this week suggests that the life-giving liquid was once more plentiful than they thought.

    "This is different from the rocks out on the plain, where we saw coatings and veins apparently due to effects of a small amount of water. Here we have a more thorough, deeper alteration, suggesting much more water."

    Clovis is situated among rocks that do not show signs of water wear, which Squyres said could help scientists "get a handle on what took place."

    "So far we have intriguing clues hinting that this rock Clovis had interacted with liquid water," Squyres said. "We need to understand whether it was cold or hot ...liquid or gas. That should tell us a lot about the alteration by water."

    Opportunity, which landed on a flat gray plain on the opposite side of Mars that scientists said was once drenched by a salty sea, planned to investigate a dune field inside Endurance Crater, where the rover has explored since June.

    The six-wheeled rovers have operated in Mars' harsh atmosphere more than twice as long as they were designed to but are beginning to experience minor mechanical problems, NASA engineers said.

    One of Spirit's wheels has lost power, while Opportunity's rock abrasion tool jammed twice last week, engineers said.



    Copyright 2004 Reuters. All rights reserved.This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten, or redistributed


     
    Céu claro para todos!
    José Geraldo Mattos - Moderador
     
    "A mente que se abre a uma nova idéia,  jamais voltará ao seu tamanho original"(Albert Einstein)
     


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    #4979 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Sex, 20 de Ago de 2004 9:46 am
    Assunto: Robô da Nasa encontra vestígios de 'água ativa' em Marte
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    Robô da Nasa encontra vestígios de 'água ativa' em Marte

     da BBC Brasil

    O veículo-robô Spirit, da Nasa, encontrou evidências de que a água alterou "profundamente" uma rocha, chamada Clovis, na Cratera de Gusev, em Marte.

    Uma inspeção inicial no local, em um monte de 9 metros de altura, sugere que a água teria sido "ativa" no planeta.

    "Nós temos evidências de que a interação com água líquida mudou a composição dessa rocha", disse Steve Squyres, principal investigador dos instrumentos científicos nos robôs Spirit e Opportunity.

    "Isso é diferente de outras rochas da superfície, onde nós vimos camadas e veias, aparentemente, devido a efeitos de uma pequena quantidade de água. Aqui, nós temos uma alteração profunda, sugerindo muito mais água."

    Desgaste

    "Para realmente entender as condições que alteraram Clovis, gostaríamos de saber como era antes da alteração. Nós temos o 'depois'. Agora, queremos o 'antes'. Se tivermos sorte, outras rochas nos arredores podem nos dar isso", disse Squyres.

    Doug Ming, da equipe de pesquisadores da Nasa, afirmou que as indicações de que a água afetou Clovis surgiram a partir da análise interna e externa da rocha.

    Foram encontrados altos índices de bromo, enxofre e cloro.

    "Essa também é uma rocha muito leve, não como as pedras de basalto vistas na superfície da Cratera de Gusev", acrescentou.

    Spirit e Opportunity completaram, com sucesso, suas missões primárias de três meses em abril e, agora, estão enviando resultados extras de missões que foram estendidas.

    Os robôs permanecem em bom estado, embora comecem a apresentar sinais de desgaste.

    Especial

  • Arquivo: veja o que já foi publicado sobre os robôs da Nasa



  •  
    Céu claro para todos!
    José Geraldo Mattos - Moderador
     
    "A mente que se abre a uma nova idéia,  jamais voltará ao seu tamanho original"(Albert Einstein)
     


    MSN Hotmail, o maior webmail do Brasil. Faça o seu agora.

    #4980 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Sex, 20 de Ago de 2004 9:53 am
    Assunto: Alien Vs. Predator: What's Really Out There
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    Alien Vs. Predator: What's Really Out There

    By Seth Shostak
    SETI Institute
    posted: 19 August 2004
    06:35 am ET

    Standing in the ticket line for Alien vs Predator, I assumed this movie would be a souped-up version of a video game, a small home entertainment pumped up on Hollywood steroids to fill the big screen. Of course, I couldn’t help but notice that the line extended over three counties, and the movie had grabbed top ranking at the box office its first weekend out. Facts are, Alien vs Predator is not just mindless bloat, and a better film than folks over thirty will expect.

    Get this straight: the movie is a cut-and-paste job. It’s a pastiche of a half-dozen situations from well-known sci-fi pictures, a quilt sewn together from tried-and-true scraps of film fabric.

    The plot (don’t worry; it doesn’t extend beyond the movie’s halfway mark) is cranked up fast, as an orbiting surveillance satellite finds a weird object buried thousands of feet under Antarctica (think The Thing). Next, a wealthy, but terminally ill industrialist, Charles Bishop Weyland, decides to hire some experts to find out what the hidden edifice is, mostly to inject some last-minute thrills into his waning life (think Contact).

    Then there’s the obligatory montage as the "team" – a hodge-podge of reluctant, wise-cracking academics – is assembled. Team leader Alexa Woods (played by Sanaa Lathan), is busy climbing her way up a precipice in the Himalayas that’s slightly steeper than the Washington Monument when she gets the call to action (think Kirk in Star Trek IV). The under-ice construction found by the satellite dates from the dawn of mankind, and is built in a mishmash ziggurat style that incorporates the most grandiose elements of the Egyptians, Aztecs, and others from our archaeological past who lived large on stone (think Indiana Jones, among dozens).

    All this is just to set the scene for the film’s real raison d’etre: the battle between two species from classic sci-fi films that are box office draws in their own right: Alien and Predator. Freshly hatched hordes of the former and a well-armed squad of the latter engage in a ritual hunt deep underground, while Weyland’s team alternately serves as victim, breeding accessory (for the Aliens), and occasional combatant. Yep, it’s Godzilla vs Monster Zero vs the Tokyo defense forces.

    Mindless violence, I hear you thinking. Well, sure. This really is a comic book, a video game, and the extraterrestrial equivalent of a mano-a-mano contest of strength, wits, and spring-loaded weapons. And even though the first part of the film, in which the humans work their way into Earth’s nether regions to explore and discover, is rather more interesting than the stochastic brutishness that follows, you’ve got to admit that it’s not every day that you watch a litter of non-carbon based life forms (the Aliens) making a sincere effort to dine on a bunch of grunting hulks from another world (the Predators). It has the fascination of feeding time in the Big Cat cage.

    What’s Really Out There

    Of course, films like this suggest that the Galaxy is largely populated by highly aggressive species, ones whose interest in Earth might extend no farther than using it now and again as a hunting lodge. The tracts of space, in this view, are akin to the unknown seas on medieval maps -- "here be monsters" -- vast, forbidding habitats that lap the shores of the civilized world, and are stuffed with dangerous creatures.

    That’s unlikely to be typical. We still can’t say what real aliens are like, of course, but science can provide some useful insights. After all, any biology out there will exist in a landscape of finite resources. Darwinian competition will be their lot, as well as ours. So you can expect that there will be predators. Predation is an economic device: carnivores leave it to plants or plant eaters to slowly build up energy-rich molecules from sunlight or some other source. They then harvest this crop of useful compounds quickly, a tactic that can power an active life style.

    But of course, for an intelligent species with technology capable of interstellar travel, predation is oh-so Stone Age. Even today, humans (who are a long way from being able to make sporting trips to other star systems) don’t rely on predation much. We farm our food, and soon we’ll manufacture it. Killing just for the fun of it, as the Predators do, is no longer considered socially acceptable in most circles. Real Predators, who must be many thousands of years ahead of us, have presumably moved beyond this.

    As unlikely as the Predator may be, even aside from its oddball, anthropomorphic appearance -- a brushed steel Samurai with dreadlocks -- it’s still more believable than Alien. This toothy terror, with its nitric acid blood (pray that it doesn’t get a nosebleed in the car), depends on humans for breeding. Now sure, there are some terrestrial species, such as the ichneumon fly that use other creatures as part of their reproductive cycle. But those other creatures are at least hanging around on the same planet! Imagine the evolutionary difficulties for some species that requires a chance encounter with beings from another world just to have kids! That is not a winning survival scenario.

    OK, it’s just a movie. And indeed, it is: one that plays well to our innate fear of large teeth and excessive mucous. It doesn’t tell us nearly as much about extraterrestrial life as it does about our darkest dreams. But Alien vs Predator is made with such style and attention to detail that it rises above being just a pay-per-view wrestling match between ugly combatants. It’s not deep, but it’s not throw-away either. This is a film that you’ll both enjoy and think about the next day.




     
    Céu claro para todos!
    José Geraldo Mattos - Moderador
     
    "A mente que se abre a uma nova idéia,  jamais voltará ao seu tamanho original"(Albert Einstein)
     


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    #4981 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Sex, 20 de Ago de 2004 10:04 am
    Assunto: Helicopter Stunt Pilots to Snag Stardust for NASA
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    Helicopter Stunt Pilots to Snag Stardust for NASA

    Thu Aug 19, 9:09 PM ET
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    By Gina Keating

    PASADENA, Calif. (Reuters) - NASA (news - web sites) has recruited two Hollywood helicopter stunt pilots for an especially tricky maneuver -- snagging a capsule full of stardust as it parachutes back to Earth next month, mission managers said on Thursday.

    Photo
    Reuters Photo

     

    The mid-air retrieval 4,000 feet above the Utah desert on Sept. 8 is the planned climax to the space agency's $264 million Genesis mission, which began three years ago with the launch of a space probe to collect tiny charged particles called ions blown toward Earth from the sun.

    Scientists say the resulting cargo of solar ions, about 10 to 20 micrograms of oxygen, nitrogen and other elements that collectively weigh about as much as a few grains of salt, will yield key insights about the formation of planets at the dawn of the solar system.

    The novel scheme for snaring the re-entry capsule, thus sparing the canister from a rocky landing that could damage the delicate instruments and samples inside, was unveiled for reporters on Thursday at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena.

    The return of the Genesis probe will mark the first bits of extraterrestrial matter retrieved from space by human means since the 1970s, when moon rocks were carried back to Earth by manned U.S. Apollo and unmanned Soviet Luna missions, NASA said.

    If successful, it also will make aviation history as the first man-made object captured by aircraft as it entered Earth's atmosphere from space, said Roy Haggard, an aerospace research executive hired by NASA to design the Genesis retrieval project.

    He said helicopters were used in thousands of missions to grab parachuted canisters of film shot by spy cameras over Vietnam and the Soviet Union during the Cold War.

    But in recruiting personnel for Genesis, Haggard said all the experts kept pointing to stunt pilots as the best suited for the job.

    In the end, he hired Cliff Fleming as his chief pilot for the Genesis project and backup Dan Rudert, both leading Hollywood stunt pilots who also fly firefighting missions for the government.

    Fleming, who previously flew for the military, is currently on the set of the next "Batman" movie and did not attend the press event. But Rudert, whose stunt credits include "Hulk" and "XXX," said the precision flying they do for film work is good training.

    "A lot of the stuff we do is close, and that does help us," he said.

    The disc-shaped reentry capsule, about 5 feet wide and weighing about 450 pounds, will enter the atmosphere at a speed of 24,600 miles per hour.

    But once its parachute is deployed, the pod will slow to just over 20 mph, dropping at 14 feet per second, by the time it reaches its "intercept point" about 4,000 feet over the desert floor, NASA said.

    The two retrieval copters, each carrying a three-person crew and hovering several miles away from the target area, will swoop in once they spot the parachute, which also will be tracked by radar. The object is for Fleming to snag the chute with a special 20-foot-long hook.

    If he misses, he and Rudert will have time to make about 10 passes before the capsule drops to 500 feet, too low for a safe mid-air grab. But Haggard said the pilots successfully hooked the capsule in all 60 of their practice runs.

    Once the pod is snagged, it will be flown to a temporary landing spot, where it will be lowered onto a pad, disconnected from its parachute and flown to a nearby Army air field to be lowered gently into a special cradle and then moved into an isolation chamber, NASA said.


     
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    #4982 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Sex, 20 de Ago de 2004 10:03 am
    Assunto: Forming galaxy cluster captured
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    Forming galaxy cluster captured
    Chandra can see individual galaxies in the hot gas

    The Chandra X-ray Observatory has caught enormous hot gas clouds in space in the act of merging to form a single massive galaxy cluster.

    The clouds, which are many millions of degrees Celsius in temperature, each contain hundreds of galaxies.

    The gas complex, known as Abell 2125, is about three billion light-years from Earth and is seen at a time about 11 billion years after the Big Bang.

    Chandra is able to resolve individual galaxies within the gas clouds.

    Galaxies are often found in groups or larger accumulations called clusters.

    Our own galaxy, the Milky Way, belongs to the so-called Local Group, along with the larger spiral galaxy Andromeda (M31) and several smaller satellites, including the Large and Small Magellenic Clouds.

    Step-by-step

    The build-up of these massive galaxy clusters is a step-by-step process that takes billions of years.

    Exactly how long it takes for a cluster to form depends on several factors, including the density of subclusters nearby, the rate of expansion of the Universe and the relative amounts of dark energy and dark matter.

    Astronomers think the very low concentration of iron atoms in one of the gas clouds in Abell 2125, suggests it is in the very early stages of cluster evolution.

    The iron atoms produced by supernovas in the embedded galaxies must still be contained in and around those galaxies, perhaps in grains of dust that have not been well mixed with the gas.

    Over time, as this anaemic cluster merges with other clusters and the hot gas pressure increases, the dust grains will be driven from the galaxies, mixed with the hot gas and destroyed, liberating the iron atoms.

    "We may be seeing hot intergalactic gas in a relatively pristine state before it has been polluted by gas from galaxies," said Q. Daniel Wang of the University of Massachusetts in Amhurst, US.

    The results will appear in a forthcoming issue of the Astrophysical Journal.




     
    Céu claro para todos!
    José Geraldo Mattos - Moderador
     
    "A mente que se abre a uma nova idéia,  jamais voltará ao seu tamanho original"(Albert Einstein)
     


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    #4983 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Sex, 20 de Ago de 2004 9:59 am
    Assunto: Five new moons for planet Neptune
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    Five new moons for planet Neptune
    Neptune as seen by Voyager 2, Nasa
    The new moons are probably captured asteroids
    Five new satellites - and one candidate moon - have been discovered orbiting the giant planet Neptune, bringing its tally of moons to 13.

    Two orbit in the same direction as the planet rotates, while the orbits of the others are opposite to Neptune's spin.

    The tiny outer satellites are probably captured asteroids, astronomers say.

    Cataclysmic events connected to the capture of Neptune's moon Triton were thought to have destroyed any outer satellites the planet once had.

    The new moons, named S/2002 N1 to N4 and S/2003 N1, are in eccentric, tilted orbits. They are all between 30km and 50km in diameter.

    An international team of astronomers searched for the satellites between 2001 and 2003 using the 4m Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory and the 3.6m Canada-France-Hawaii telescope.

    Elusive sixth

    The researchers used a technique to look for the new moons that was originally developed to detect very faint objects in the outer Kuiper Belt.

    They also observed a sixth candidate moon, which they have named c02N4. This was discovered on 14 August 2002 and seen again at the Very Large Telescope (VLT) on 3 September 2002. But further attempts to spot this object failed.

    The researchers say this could be Centaur - an object that has migrated from the outer Kuiper Belt. But its lack of movement relative to Neptune is more consistent with it being a satellite.

    The satellites are unlikely to have condensed from material around Neptune.

    Instead, these so-called irregular moons may be the product of a parent body that collided with Neptune's moon Nereid and were then disturbed in their orbits by the capture of Triton from the Kuiper Belt.





     
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    #4984 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Sex, 20 de Ago de 2004 10:01 am
    Assunto: Stars reveal the Milky Way's age
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    Stars reveal the Milky Way's age
    By Paul Rincon
    BBC News Online science staff

    Milky Way, Nasa
    The Milky Way is one of many spiral galaxies in the Universe
    Astronomers have used measurements from two distant stars to come up with an age for our galaxy, the Milky Way.

    A team working with the Very Large Telescope (VLT) in Chile report that our galaxy is 13.6 billion years old, give or take 800 million years.

    This was determined by measuring the amount of the element beryllium in two stars in a so-called globular cluster.

    The beryllium content of stars rises with time, so it can be used as a "cosmic clock" to calculate their ages.

    "This is the first time we have obtained an independent determination of this fundamental value," said team member Daniele Galli of INAF-Observatorio di Arcetri in Florence, Italy.

    The researchers studied two stars called A0228 and A2111 in the globular cluster NGC 6397.

    Some of the oldest stars in the Milky Way are found in large stellar clusters, particularly globular clusters.

    Generation gap

    Stars in these clusters were born from the same cloud and at the same time. But they were not the first stars to be formed in the Milky Way.

    This is known because they contain small amounts of certain chemical elements which must have been synthesised in an earlier generation of massive stars that exploded as supernovae after a short and energetic life.

    NGC 6397, European Southern Observatory
    Stars in globular clusters like NGC 6397 form at the same time
    Astronomers have not been able to find any less massive stars from this first generation that are still shining today, preventing them from determining when these first generation stars formed.

    But by measuring the amount of beryllium in two faint stars within the NGC 6397 cluster, an international team determined the time interval between the formation of the Milky Way's first generation of stars and those in the cluster.

    They arrived at a value of 200-300 million years. Stellar evolution models suggest the stars in NGC 6397 are 13.4 billion years old, give or take 800 million years.

    Adding on the time interval gives an age of 13.6 billion years for the Milky Way.

    Technical obstacles

    However, the measurements were not straightforward. Beryllium is destroyed at temperatures above a few million degrees.

    When a star evolves toward a giant phase, convection brings hot gas from the interior into contact with gas from the star's upper atmosphere.

    This dilutes the initial beryllium content in the upper stellar atmosphere. For the beryllium clock to be of any use, beryllium content needs to be measured in less massive and less evolved stars known as "turn-off stars". But these stars are very faint.

    By using the UV-Visual Echelle Spectrograph (UVES) instrument on the 8.2m Kuyen telescope that is part of the VLT, the astronomers say they were able to obtain beryllium measurements from A0228 and A2111.

    The work is due to be published in an upcoming issue of Astronomy & Astrophysics.





     
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    #4985 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Dom, 22 de Ago de 2004 11:35 pm
    Assunto: Estimating the Age of the Milky Way
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    Estimating the Age of the Milky Way

    Summary - (Aug 17, 2004) Here's a question that's surprisingly difficult to answer: how old is the Milky Way? A team of astronomers have used the European Southern Observatory's Very Large Telescope to get an approximate age of 13.6 billion years, give or take 800 million. They reached this estimate by studying some of the oldest stars in our galaxy, which are located in globular star clusters, and born together in the same cloud of dust at the same time. They made difficult observations of a substance called Beryllium-9, which has been accumulating throughout the Universe since the Big Bang.

    Full Story - Observations by an international team of astronomers with the UVES spectrometer on ESO's Very Large Telescope at the Paranal Observatory (Chile) have thrown new light on the earliest epoch of the Milky Way galaxy.

    The first-ever measurement of the Beryllium content in two stars in a globular cluster (NGC 6397) - pushing current astronomical technology towards the limit - has made it possible to study the early phase between the formation of the first generation of stars in the Milky Way and that of this stellar cluster. This time interval was found to amount to 200 - 300 million years.

    The age of the stars in NGC 6397, as determined by means of stellar evolution models, is 13,400 ± 800 million years. Adding the two time intervals gives the age of the Milky Way, 13,600 ± 800 million years.

    The currently best estimate of the age of the Universe, as deduced, e.g., from measurements of the Cosmic Microwave Background, is 13,700 million years. The new observations thus indicate that the first generation of stars in the Milky Way galaxy formed soon after the end of the ~200 million-year long "Dark Ages" that succeeded the Big Bang.

    The age of the Milky Way
    How old is the Milky Way ? When did the first stars in our galaxy ignite ?

    A proper understanding of the formation and evolution of the Milky Way system is crucial for our knowledge of the Universe. Nevertheless, the related observations are among the most difficult ones, even with the most powerful telescopes available, as they involve a detailed study of old, remote and mostly faint celestial objects.

    Globular clusters and the ages of stars

    Modern astrophysics is capable of measuring the ages of certain stars, that is the time elapsed since they were formed by condensation in huge interstellar clouds of gas and dust. Some stars are very "young" in astronomical terms, just a few million years old like those in the nearby Orion Nebula. The Sun and its planetary system was formed about 4,560 million years ago, but many other stars formed much earlier. Some of the oldest stars in the Milky Way are found in large stellar clusters, in particular in "globular clusters" (PR Photo 23a/04), so called because of their spheroidal shape.

    Stars belonging to a globular cluster were born together, from the same cloud and at the same time. Since stars of different masses evolve at different rates, it is possible to measure the age of globular clusters with a reasonably good accuracy. The oldest ones are found to be more than 13,000 million years old.

    Still, those cluster stars were not the first stars to be formed in the Milky Way. We know this, because they contain small amounts of certain chemical elements which must have been synthesized in an earlier generation of massive stars that exploded as supernovae after a short and energetic life. The processed material was deposited in the clouds from which the next generations of stars were made, cf. ESO PR 03/01.

    Despite intensive searches, it has until now not been possible to find less massive stars of this first generation that might still be shining today. Hence, we do not know when these first stars were formed. For the time being, we can only say that the Milky Way must be older than the oldest globular cluster stars.

    But how much older?

    Beryllium to the rescue
    What astrophysicists would like to have is therefore a method to measure the time interval between the formation of the first stars in the Milky Way (of which many quickly became supernovae) and the moment when the stars in a globular cluster of known age were formed. The sum of this time interval and the age of those stars would then be the age of the Milky Way.

    New observations with the VLT at ESO's Paranal Observatory have now produced a break-through in this direction. The magic element is "Beryllium"!

    Beryllium is one of the lightest elements [2] - the nucleus of the most common and stable isotope (Beryllium-9) consists of four protons and five neutrons. Only hydrogen, helium and lithium are lighter. But while those three were produced during the Big Bang, and while most of the heavier elements were produced later in the interior of stars, Beryllium-9 can only be produced by "cosmic spallation". That is, by fragmentation of fast-moving heavier nuclei - originating in the mentioned supernovae explosions and referred to as energetic "galactic cosmic rays" - when they collide with light nuclei (mostly protons and alpha particles, i.e. hydrogen and helium nuclei) in the interstellar medium.

    Galactic cosmic rays and the Beryllium clock
    The galactic cosmic rays travelled all over the early Milky Way, guided by the cosmic magnetic field. The resulting production of Beryllium was quite uniform within the galaxy. The amount of Beryllium increased with time and this is why it might act as a "cosmic clock".

    The longer the time that passed between the formation of the first stars (or, more correctly, their quick demise in supernovae explosions) and the formation of the globular cluster stars, the higher was the Beryllium content in the interstellar medium from which they were formed. Thus, assuming that this Beryllium is preserved in the stellar atmosphere, the more Beryllium is found in such a star, the longer is the time interval between the formation of the first stars and of this star.

    The Beryllium may therefore provide us with unique and crucial information about the duration of the early stages of the Milky Way.

    A very difficult observation
    So far, so good. The theoretical foundations for this dating method were developed during the past three decades and all what is needed is then to measure the Beryllium content in some globular cluster stars.

    But this is not as simple as it sounds! The main problem is that Beryllium is destroyed at temperatures above a few million degrees. When a star evolves towards the luminous giant phase, violent motion (convection) sets in, the gas in the upper stellar atmosphere gets into contact with the hot interior gas in which all Beryllium has been destroyed and the initial Beryllium content in the stellar atmosphere is thus significantly diluted. To use the Beryllium clock, it is therefore necessary to measure the content of this element in less massive, less evolved stars in the globular cluster. And these so-called "turn-off (TO) stars" are intrinsically faint.

    In fact, the technical problem to overcome is three-fold: First, all globular clusters are quite far away and as the stars to be measured are intrinsically faint, they appear quite faint in the sky. Even in NGC6397, the second closest globular cluster, the TO stars have a visual magnitude of ~16, or 10000 times fainter than the faintest star visible to the unaided eye. Secondly, there are only two Beryllium signatures (spectral lines) visible in the stellar spectrum and as these old stars do contain comparatively little Beryllium, those lines are very weak, especially when compared to neighbouring spectral lines from other elements. And third, the two Beryllium lines are situated in a little explored spectral region at wavelength 313 nm, i.e., in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum that is strongly affected by absorption in the terrestrial atmosphere near the cut-off at 300 nm, below which observations from the ground are no longer possible.

    It is thus no wonder that such observations had never been made before, the technical difficulties were simply unsurmountable.

    VLT and UVES do the job
    Using the high-performance UVES spectrometer on the 8.2-m Kuyen telescope of ESO's Very Large Telescope at the Paranal Observatory (Chile) which is particularly sensitive to ultraviolet light, a team of ESO and Italian astronomers [1] succeeded in obtaining the first reliable measurements of the Beryllium content in two TO-stars (denoted "A0228" and "A2111") in the globular cluster NGC 6397 (PR Photo 23b/04). Located at a distance of about 7,200 light-years in the direction of a rich stellar field in the southern constellation Ara, it is one of the two nearest stellar clusters of this type; the other is Messier 4.

    The observations were done during several nights in the course of 2003. Totalling more than 10 hours of exposure on each of the 16th-magnitude stars, they pushed the VLT and UVES towards the technical limit. Reflecting on the technological progress, the leader of the team, ESO-astronomer Luca Pasquini, is elated: "Just a few years ago, any observation like this would have been impossible and just remained an astronomer's dream!"

    The resulting spectra (PR Photo 23c/04) of the faint stars show the weak signatures of Beryllium ions (Be II). Comparing the observed spectrum with a series of synthetic spectra with different Beryllium content (in astrophysics: "abundance") allowed the astronomers to find the best fit and thus to measure the very small amount of Beryllium in these stars: for each Beryllium atom there are about 2,224,000,000,000 hydrogen atoms.

    Beryllium lines are also seen in another star of the same type as these stars, HD 218052, cf. PR Photo 23c/04. However, it is not a member of a cluster and its age is by far not as well known as that of the cluster stars. Its Beryllium content is quite similar to that of the cluster stars, indicating that this field star was born at about the same time as the cluster.

    From the Big Bang until now
    According to the best current spallation theories, the measured amount of Beryllium must have accumulated in the course of 200 - 300 million years. Italian astronomer Daniele Galli, another member of the team, does the calculation: "So now we know that the age of the Milky Way is this much more than the age of that globular cluster - our galaxy must therefore be 13,600 ± 800 million years old. This is the first time we have obtained an independent determination of this fundamental value!".

    Within the given uncertainties, this number also fits very well with the current estimate of the age of the Universe, 13,700 million years, that is the time elapsed since the Big Bang. It thus appears that the first generation of stars in the Milky Way galaxy was formed at about the time the "Dark Ages" ended, now believed to be some 200 million years after the Big Bang.

    It would seem that the system in which we live may indeed be one of the "founding" members of the galaxy population in the Universe.

    More Information
    The research presented in this press release is discussed in a paper entitled "Be in turn-off stars of NGC 6397: early Galaxy spallation, cosmochronology and cluster formation" by L. Pasquini and co-authors that will be published in the European research journal "Astronomy & Astrophysics" (astro-ph/0407524).

    Original Source: ESO News Release



     
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    #4986 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Dom, 22 de Ago de 2004 11:32 pm
    Assunto: Chandra Sees Clouds Coming Together
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    Chandra Sees Clouds Coming Together

    Summary - (Aug 16, 2004) A new image of Abell 2125, taken by the Chandra X-Ray Observatory, shows several intergalactic clouds of hot gas in the process of merging together; they seem to be in the process of creating a single massive galaxy cluster. Chandra's resolution allows astronomers to distinguish the clouds from the individual galaxies inside it.

    Full Story - A NASA Chandra X-ray Observatory image has revealed a complex of several intergalactic hot gas clouds in the process of merging. The superb Chandra spatial resolution made it possible to distinguish individual galaxies from the massive clouds of hot gas. One of the clouds, which that envelopes hundreds of galaxies, has an extraordinarily low concentration of iron atoms, indicating that it is in the very early stages of cluster evolution.

    "We may be seeing hot intergalactic gas in a relatively pristine state before it has been polluted by gas from galaxies," said Q. Daniel Wang of the University of Massachusetts in Amherst, and lead author on an upcoming Astrophysical Journal article describing the study. "This discovery should provide valuable insight into how the most massive structures in the universe are assembled."

    The complex, known as Abell 2125,is about 3 billion light years from Earth, and is seen at a time about 11 billion years after the Big Bang, when many galaxy clusters are believed to have formed. The Chandra Abell 2125 image shows several huge elongated clouds of multimillion degree gas coming together from different directions. These hot gas clouds, each of which contains hundreds of galaxies, appear to be in the process of merging to form a single massive galaxy cluster.

    Chandra, Hubble Space Telescope, and Very Large Array radio telescope data show that several galaxies in the Abell 2125 core cluster are being stripped of their gas as they fall through surrounding high-pressure hot gas. This stripping process has enriched the core cluster's gas in heavy elements such as iron.

    The gas in the pristine cloud, which is still several million light years away from the core cluster, is conspicuous for its lack of iron atoms. This anemic cloud must be in a very early evolutionary stage. The iron atoms produced by supernovas in the embedded galaxies must still be contained in and around the galaxies, perhaps in grains of dust not well mixed with the observed X-ray-emitting gas. Over time, as the cluster merges with the other clusters and the hot gas pressure increases, the dust grains will be driven from the galaxies, mixed with the hot gas, and destroyed, liberating the iron atoms.

    Building a massive galaxy cluster is a step-by-step enterprise that takes billions of years. Exactly how long it takes for such a cluster to form depends on many factors, such as the density of subclusters in the vicinity, the rate of the expansion of the universe, and the relative amounts of dark energy and dark matter.

    Cluster formation also involves complex interactions between the galaxies and the hot gas that may determine how large the galaxies in the cluster can ultimately become. These interactions determine how the galaxies maintain their gas content, the fuel for star formation. The observations of Abell 2125 provide a rare glimpse into the early steps in this process.

    NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Ala., manages the Chandra program for NASA's Office of Space Science, Washington. Northrop Grumman of Redondo Beach, Calif., formerly TRW, Inc., was the prime development contractor for the observatory. The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory controls science and flight operations from the Chandra X-ray Center in Cambridge, Mass.

    Additional information and images are available at:

    http://chandra.harvard.edu
    and
    http://chandra.nasa.gov

    Original Source: Chandra News Release



    Fonte:
     
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    #4987 De: José Geraldo Mattos <geraldomattos@...>
    Data: Dom, 22 de Ago de 2004 12:18 pm
    Assunto: Inscrições abertas "Curso de Introdução a Astronomia"
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    CURSO DE INTRODUÇÃO À ASTRONOMIA " ESTRÊLAS GALÁXIA E COSMOLOGIA" 2004

          

    • Este curso será realizado de 13 a 24 setembro de 2004, no seguinte horário: 19:30 às 21:30 hs.
    • Carga horária 30 horas, sem à necessidade de pré-requisitos.
    • Inscrições abertas à partir de 23  de agosto  de 2004, na Secretaria do Planetário da UFSC,
    • Preços: Estudantes devidamente comprovados,  R$40,00. Não estudantes R$50,00.
    • Maiores informações telefone: (048) 331.9241 9914.5078.
    • Clique aqui para ver as fotos dos cursos realizados.
    • Clique aqui .para fazer um curso virtual.

    CONTEÚDO PROGRAMÁTICO

     Da Terra ao Universo: A concepção do Universo ao longo da história humana.A evolução do pensamento científico. A consciência do Cosmos, as concepções místicas, míticas, religiosas e científicas.

    Astronomia Moderna: A tecnologia disponível e os avanços científicos. Estado da arte atual. As naves e sondas. Os modernos telescópios e o espectro eletromagnético.

    Estrelas: Conceito e estrutura. Classificação e tipologia. Fonte de energia, Diagrama HR e evolução estelar. Estrelas variáveis e sistemas estelares. Estrelas eruptivas. Pulsares e buracos negros.

    Meio interestelar: Estrutura . A radiação eletromagnética no meio interestelar, absorção e dispersão. Composição química e física. Fases constituíntes e o bêrço estelar.

    Galáxias: Conceito e estrutura, classificação. A Via Láctea. Galáxias próximas e o grupo local. Os aglomerados galáticos. Quasares e galáxias exóticas. Galáxias emergentes e interativas.

    Cosmologia: Introdução histórica. A moderna cosmologia científica. Os princípios cosmológicos e os fatos observacionais. A geometria do espaço. Teorias cosmológicas e os modelos atuais. O Big Bang. O Universo inflacionário. Cronologia do Universo. Einstein e a relatividade.

    Vida no Universo: Possibilidade de vida no universo. A equação de Drake. Pesquisa por inteligências extra-terrestres.

    Planetário: Sessão de céu artificial, projetado na cúpula do planetário, com a localização dos astros e seus movimentos. As coordenadas celestes.

    Aulas práticas de observação ao telescópio: Observação  dos astros disponíveis no céu de primavera. Sujeitas aos fatores climáticos

    Mais informações: www.gea.org.br


    #4988 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Dom, 22 de Ago de 2004 11:10 pm
    Assunto: Testes agitam corrida privada ao espaço
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    Testes agitam corrida privada ao espaço

     SALVADOR NOGUEIRA
    da Folha de S.Paulo

    "Sábado estava um dia perfeito para voar", descreveu John Carmack, engenheiro-chefe da Armadillo Aerospace, ao justificar as preparações para o lançamento de seu foguete, sob o céu azulado do Texas. Pelos planos modestos da equipe, o veículo deveria ter subido uns 200 metros. E subiu.

    Mas algo deu errado. A nave desceu dando piruetas, caiu de lado e se espatifou no chão, menos de 20 segundos após a decolagem. Moral da história: "US$ 35 mil de foguete agora são um monte de destroços de primeira qualidade do Armadillo", ponderou Carmack, no site do grupo (www.armadilloaerospace.com), onde é possível ver o vídeo do esforço.

    Essa é uma das histórias menos glamourosas, mais emblemáticas e cada vez mais recorrentes da corrida pelo Prêmio X Ansari --uma bolada de US$ 10 milhões a ser oferecida ao primeiro grupo privado que conseguir lançar uma nave espacial com capacidade para três pessoas a cem quilômetros de altitude, duas vezes, num prazo de duas semanas.

    A competição, criada pela Fundação Prêmio X, de St. Louis, EUA, conta com participantes dos quatro cantos do mundo. A idéia é estimular o desenvolvimento de naves de baixo custo, principalmente para aplicações em turismo espacial.

    Carmack é engenheiro e co-fundador da empresa id Software, criadora da série de jogos de computador "Doom". Com o dinheiro ganho com os games, ele lidera uma das 26 equipes na disputa.

    O teste de seu veículo, uma versão não-tripulada da nave com que pretendia disputar o Prêmio X, ocorreu há três semanas, quando outros times também começaram a mostrar serviço.

    Aquecendo os motores

    A coisa esquentou depois que a Scaled Composites, empresa de aeronaves leves da Califórnia, anunciou sua intenção de tentar vencer a competição entre os dias 29 de setembro e 4 de outubro.

    Não se trata de blefe. Liderados pelo legendário engenheiro aeroespacial Burt Rutan, homem que criou o primeiro avião a circular o mundo sem reabastecimento, e financiados pelo milionário Paul Allen, co-fundador da Microsoft, os técnicos da Scaled já promoveram um vôo bem-sucedido ao espaço com sua nave, um planador-foguete chamado SpaceShipOne, em 21 de junho.

    Pretendem repetir o feito no fim de setembro e ganhar os US$ 10 milhões --metade do valor investido na criação da nave. O anúncio foi feito no final de julho, cumprindo a exigência de que todas as tentativas sejam comunicadas com 60 dias de antecedência.

    Uma semana depois, o grupo canadense Da Vinci Project, liderado pelo engenheiro Brian Feeney, anunciou que também faria uma tentativa de capturar o prêmio, com o primeiro vôo em 2 de outubro. O financiamento veio do GoldenPalace.com, o maior cassino virtual do mundo. É, de fato, uma aposta ousada. Feeney ainda não promoveu um vôo sequer.

    "Podemos fazer alguns testes de descida da cápsula, mas não vamos anunciar esses eventos", afirmou o canadense, durante o anúncio da data para seu vôo.

    Retardatários

    A essa altura, somente se esses dois grupos falharem, algum dos outros 24 terá a chance de vencer. Mas as equipes não desistem. Carmack já prometeu que reconstruirá sua nave, numa versão aperfeiçoada, e voltará a voar.

    Outros grupos também continuam trabalhando a todo vapor. No dia seguinte à destruição do protótipo do Armadillo, o grupo americano Space Transport Corporation, de Washington, lançou uma versão em escala reduzida de seu foguete Rubicon-1. O veículo explodiu no ar, após atingir parcos 60 metros de altitude.

    Os resultados negativos são esperados --e bem-vindos. Pelo menos é o que defende o engenheiro e médico americano Peter Diamandis, o criador do Prêmio X. "Tentar algo novo e revolucionário envolve riscos significativos, a maioria das novas estratégias não funciona", ele diz.

    Por isso, prossegue, os programas espaciais governamentais são tão caros: não se pode arriscar. A prioridade é não perder vidas e causar comoções nacionais.

    Na corrida pelo Prêmio X, apesar dos riscos, até agora, ninguém morreu. E nem tudo é fracasso. No sábado passado, a equipe Canadian Arrow, rival canadense do Da Vinci Project, realizou com sucesso o teste de descida com pára-quedas de sua cápsula. O foguete é baseado no consagrado modelo V-2, desenvolvido pelo alemão Wernher von Braun durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial.

    Um dia antes, as boas novas vieram da América do Sul. O grupo liderado pelo engenheiro argentino Pablo de Leon reportou sucesso no teste da torre de ejeção de seu foguete, o Gauchito, num modelo em meia escala. "É um importante marco", diz Leon.

    Ele não tem mais esperanças de vencer o Prêmio X, mas diz que ainda assim irá concluir o projeto. E, como único concorrente da América Latina, espera representar mais que a Argentina. "Se conseguirmos, representaremos todos os países latino-americanos também --a criatividade de nosso povo e a habilidade de trabalhar com pequenos orçamentos e fazer grandes coisas", orgulha-se.

    Segunda fase

    Enquanto isso, a empresa britânica Starchaser Industries, liderada pelo fogueteiro Steve Bennett, está abrindo escritórios no Novo México, nos EUA. Bennett, que detém o recorde pelo maior foguete particular já construído na Europa, disse que pretende iniciar operações de lançamento em solo americano a partir de 2006. Por quê? É lá, segundo seus organizadores, que acontecerá a segunda etapa na revolução espacial impulsionada pelo Prêmio X.

    Os promotores da competição já fecharam um acordo com o governo daquele Estado americano para lá reunir as equipes participantes anualmente e promover a chamada Copa Prêmio X. Será uma espécie de "Fórmula-1 espacial", em que os times disputarão, ao longo de uma ou duas semanas, prêmios específicos por número de lançamentos, número de pessoas transportadas, altitude atingida, e assim por diante.

    Diamandis acredita que cerca de um terço das equipes que disputam o Prêmio X será capaz de iniciar operações tripuladas em dois ou três anos. E o custo de um pequeno vôo até o espaço será bem menor. Hoje, um turista que queira voar numa nave russa Soyuz precisa desembolsar cerca de US$ 20 milhões. Um vôo na SpaceShipOne, de Burt Rutan, não custaria mais que US$ 100 mil.

    Especial

  • Arquivo: veja o que já foi publicado sobre a corrida espacial



  •  
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    #4989 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Dom, 22 de Ago de 2004 11:27 pm
    Assunto: More Evidence for Past Water on Mars
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    More Evidence for Past Water on Mars

    Summary - (Aug 22, 2004) NASA's Spirit rover has dug up plenty of evidence on slopes of "Columbia Hills" that water once covered the area. Spirit has been inspecting an outcrop called "Clovis" on a hill about 9 metres (30 feet) above the Gusev Crater plains, and it's found that liquid water changed the composition of the rock. Unlike rocks in the plains, which have coatings and veins created by small amounts of water, these formations have been deeply affected by water over a long period of time.

    Full Story - Now that NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Spirit is finally examining bedrock in the "Columbia Hills," it is finding evidence that water thoroughly altered some rocks in Mars' Gusev Crater.

    Spirit and its twin, Opportunity, completed successful three-month primary missions on Mars in April and are returning bonus results during extended missions. They remain in good health though beginning to show signs of wear.

    On Opportunity, a tool for exposing the insides of rocks stopped working Sunday, but engineers are optimistic that the most likely diagnosis is a problem that can be fixed soon. "It looks like there's a pebble trapped between the cutting heads of the rock abrasion tool," said Chris Salvo, rover mission manager at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif. "We think we can treat it by turning the heads in reverse, but we are still evaluating the best approach to remedy the situation. There are several options available to us."

    Opportunity originally landed right beside exposed bedrock and promptly found evidence there for an ancient body of saltwater. On the other hand, it took Spirit half a year of driving across a martian plain to reach bedrock in Gusev Crater. Now, Spirit's initial inspection of an outcrop called "Clovis" on a hill about 9 meters (30 feet) above the plain suggests that water may once have been active at Gusev.

    "We have evidence that interaction with liquid water changed the composition of this rock," said Dr. Steve Squyres of Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., principal investigator for the science instruments on both rovers. "This is different from the rocks out on the plain, where we saw coatings and veins apparently due to effects of a small amount of water. Here, we have a more thorough, deeper alteration, suggesting much more water."

    Squyres said, "To really understand the conditions that altered Clovis, we'd like to know what it was like before the alteration. We have the 'after.' Now we want the 'before.' If we're lucky, there may be rocks nearby that will give us that."

    Dr. Doug Ming, a rover science team member from NASA's Johnson Space Center, Houston, said indications of water affecting Clovis come from analyzing the rock's surface and interior with Spirit's alpha particle X-ray spectrometer and finding relatively high levels of bromine, sulfur and chlorine inside the rock. He said, "This is also a very soft rock, not like the basaltic rocks seen back on the plains of Gusev Crater. It appears to be highly altered."

    Rover team members described the golf-cart-sized robots' status and recent findings in a briefing at JPL today.

    Opportunity has completed a transect through layers of rock exposed in the southern inner slope of stadium-sized "Endurance Crater." The rocks examined range from outcrops near the rim down through progressively older and older layers to the lowest accessible outcrop, called "Axel Heiberg" after a Canadian Arctic island. "We found different compositions in different layers," said Dr. Ralf Gellert, of Max-Planck-Institut fur Chemie, Mainz, Germany. Chlorine concentration increased up to threefold in middle layers. Magnesium and sulfur declined nearly in parallel with each other in older layers, suggesting those two elements may have been dissolved and removed by water.

    Small, gray stone spheres nicknamed "blueberries" are plentiful in Endurance just as they were at Opportunity's smaller landing-site crater, "Eagle." Pictures from the rover's microscopic imager show a new variation on the blueberries throughout a reddish-tan slab called "Bylot" in the Axel Heiberg outcrop. "They're rougher textured, they vary more in size, and they're the color of the rock, instead of gray," said Zoe Learner, a science team collaborator from Cornell. "We've noticed that in some cases where these are eroding, you can see a regular blueberry or a berry fragment inside." One possibility is that a water-related process has added a coarser outer layer to the blueberries, she said, adding, "It's still really a mystery."

    JPL, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages the Mars Exploration Rover project for NASA's Science Mission Directorate, Washington. Images and additional information about the project are available from JPL at http://marsrovers.jpl.nasa.gov and from Cornell University at http://athena.cornell.edu .

    Original Source: NASA/JPL News Release



     
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    #4990 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Dom, 22 de Ago de 2004 11:20 pm
    Assunto: Genesis nearing its end
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    Genesis nearing its end
    Genesis spacecraft in collection mode
    This artist's conception shows the Genesis spacecraft in collection mode, gathering and storing samples of solar wind particles. NASA / JPL
    August 19, 2004
    Genesis, the fifth mission of NASA's Discovery program — missions used to enhance our understanding of the solar system with focused, high-quality, low-cost planetary science investigations — is on its way home. Currently 808,000 miles (1.3 million kilometers) away, Genesis will return to Earth with solar samples September 8.

    Launched in July 2001, the Genesis mission will return solar particles that may provide clues to the Sun's composition and the state of the early solar system. The collection occurred at 1 percent of the distance from Earth to the Sun. The mission will return the first samples from space since the final Apollo lunar mission in 1972.

    "What a prize Genesis will be," explains Don Burnett, the Genesis principal investigator. "Our spacecraft has logged almost 27 months far beyond the Moon's orbit, collecting atoms from the Sun. With it, we should be able to say what the Sun is composed of, at a level of precision for planetary science purposes that has never been seen before."

    Collected on five arrays, the samples were securely housed in the return capsule. The individual wafers that make up these arrays are composed of materials including silicon, gold, sapphire, and diamond.
    Helicopter practices capture of Genesis return capsule
    A Helicopter boom snags parafoil attached to descending model of the Genesis capsule. A specially modified helicopter with a boom and winch underneath snags the parafoil chute attached to a model Genesis sample return capsule. The hook on the end of the boom collapses the chute, allowing the helicopter to retrieve the capsule in mid-air. NASA / JPL [larger image]
    Some four hours from re-entry, the Genesis team will turn the spacecraft to an ideal position to release the capsule. The re-oriented capsule will enter Earth's atmosphere above Oregon, with a path toward Utah. At an altitude of 20.5 miles (33 km), a drogue parachute will deploy to slow the descent. Minutes later, the main parafoil will deploy, slowing the capsule to about 10 mph.

    Two helicopters, each with a crew crews of three, will fly in formation to grab the capsule beginning at 4,500 feet. Each helicopter will deploy an 18-foot pole with a hook. Secured to the belly of the aircraft, the hook is designed to collapse and snag the parafoil. When caught, the hooked capsule will be lowered on a cable to the ground crew. In case the first helicopter misses the payload, the second will try. The capsule must be captured above 500 feet.

    Should aerial recovery fail, the damage could be minimal or disastrous depending on whether impact occurs on a smooth desert surface or in mountainous terrain.

    The payload will be transported to a clean room at the Michael Army Air Field. Later, it will be sent to the Johnson Space Center in Houston, where the samples will be studied and sent to scientists worldwide.

    If the Genesis team determines conditions aren't good for capturing the capsule, it can postpone the re-entry. The back up capture attempt is scheduled for March 2005.



     
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    #4991 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Dom, 22 de Ago de 2004 11:22 pm
    Assunto: Mars rover update
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    Mars rover update
    Longhorn vista
    Spirit's cameras captured this scenic view across the sweeping plains of Gusev Crater on Sol 210. In the foreground is a rock outcrop dubbed Longhorn. The rim of Gusev Crater forms the horizon. NASA / JPL / Cornell [larger image]
    August 18, 2004; updated August 19
    Mission scientists report that while the twin Mars rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, are starting to show some wear and tear after weathering more than 8 months on the Red Planet, they continue to return exciting data to Earth. The initial 3-month mission for each rover was completed successfully in April, and the extended missions are a boon that investigators hope will last through the martian winter.

    Spirit, plagued by a bum wheel, has been driving on five of its six wheels except on the most difficult terrain. Having traveled more than 3 kilometers from its landing site, Spirit currently is positioned at an outcrop named Clovis inside the Columbia Hills. Preliminary images and data indicate the area contains rocks that were altered by water sometime in Mars's past.

    Compared to basalt from within the crater, Clovis contains a greater concentration of water-soluble elements, including sulfur, chlorine, and bromine. "This is the most compelling — most powerful — evidence [for water] that we have seen in the rocks at Gusev," said Steve Squyres of Cornell University and principal investigator for the science instruments on both rovers. "So far, we have intriguing clues hinting that this rock Clovis has interacted with liquid water. We still need to understand the nature of that interaction."
    Blueberries and popcorn
    In this false-color image from Opportunity, a mixture of blueberries and the more irregular, lighter-colored spherules scientists have named "popcorn" lie atop a rock named Bylot in the Axel Heiberg outcrop at Endurance Crater. NASA / JPL / Cornell [larger image]
    At Meridiani Planum, Opportunity has been driving carefully into Endurance Crater. During its descent, the rover took detailed measurements of progressively older rocks in the stratigraphy. The samples showed that while the amount of sulfur and magnesium in the rocks declines slightly, the amount of chlorine present rises dramatically. While the samples indicate the rocks have basically the same general chemistry, the layers probably were deposited there under different conditions.

    Also deep in the crater, at Axel Heiberg outcrop, scientists are investigating what appear to be variations of the now-familiar "blueberry." Red instead of blue-gray and coarse instead of smooth, the newly identified "popcorn" rocks also vary in size unlike the blueberries. In some cases, spherules contain a mixture of both red and blue particles. While a number of hypotheses have been suggested, the exact origin of these concretions remains a mystery. Says Zoe Learner, a science team collaborator from Cornell, "even though we've driven away [from the area], we're definitely going to look at this data a lot more carefully."

    So while scientists continue to puzzle over new data and piece together Mars's history, the rovers ramble on. After it concludes its investigation of Clovis, Spirit will be headed uphill toward some layered bedrock. Opportunity may linger at the base of Endurance crater to probe the edge of a dune field, but only if mission planners deem it safe. The rover also will investigate a very unusual-looking, lumpy rock on its way out. If the solar-powered batteries on each rover can withstand progressively lower Sun angles as winter advances on Mars, we can expect more exciting discoveries — and questions — to come.
    Spirit view across Gusev Crater, Sol 219
    Spirit looked out across Gusev Crater from another Columbia Hills rock outcrop on Sol 219. NASA / JPL / Cornell [larger image]


     
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    #4992 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Dom, 22 de Ago de 2004 11:25 pm
    Assunto: Five years of Chandra
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    Five years of Chandra
    Chandra X-ray Observatory
    Chandra has been exploring the high-energy universe for five years. NASA
    August 17, 2004
    The Chandra X-ray Observatory, which opened up a new world of X-ray astronomy and led to a new understanding of some of the universe's most exotic and violent objects, marked its fifth year in service last week — and, astronomers say, its work may just be starting.

    Launched from the space shuttle Columbia on July 23, 1999, the $1.5-billion NASA satellite has a sensitivity about 20 times greater than any previous X-ray telescope, allowing astronomers to probe the X-ray universe in as much detail as the Hubble Space Telescope allows in visible light. Chandra's 64-hour-long orbit takes it 200 times higher than Hubble, carrying it one-third of the way to the Moon on every circuit.

    Scientists revealed Chandra's first results on August 26, 1999. Ever since, Chandra's performance has been "spectacular," making the craft "a super companion to Hubble," says Chandra project scientist Martin Weisskopf of NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. "I think it's every bit as exciting and interesting as Hubble has been."

    X rays, like visible light, are a form of electromagnetic radiation; however, X-ray photons have much more energy than photons of visible light, and, therefore, are usually emitted by much hotter objects. So while ordinary stars emit most of their radiation at visible wavelengths, highly energetic objects like quasars and active galaxies shine like celestial beacons at X-ray wavelengths.

    "It takes high energies to produce X rays, and so the physics behind the processes is usually more violent and therefore more interesting," says Weisskopf.

    In the first year of operation, data from Chandra led to an astounding array of discoveries, including:

    • the first clear images of X rays emitted by matter falling into the black hole at the center of the Milky Way;
    • detailed images of X-ray emitting stars, including a region in the Orion Nebula containing 1,000 individual sources;
    • a supernova in the Small Magellanic Cloud, a companion galaxy to the Milky Way, marked by an expanding cloud of gas and dust.
    NGC 4261 in X Rays
    This Chandra image of the elliptical galaxy NGC 4261 reveals dozens of black holes and neutron stars strung out like beads on a necklace across tens of thousands of light-years, probably the result of an ancient collision. NASA / CXC / A. Zezas et al. [larger image]
    More recently, Chandra discovered Jupiter emits X rays; they appear to emanate from pulsating "hot spots" in the polar regions of the planet's upper atmosphere.

    Many of Chandra's most intriguing discoveries have involved black holes, especially so-called supermassive black holes that scientists now believe lurk in the cores of nearly every galaxy. In 2002, Chandra identified the first known "binary black hole" — a pair of supermassive black holes living side by side in the unusually bright galaxy NGC 6240. Two years earlier, Chandra detected what astronomers call the "X-ray background radiation" — the feeble glow of X rays from billions of light-years away, coming from every direction in the sky. Astronomers believe the X rays were emitted by supermassive black holes in the cores of extremely ancient galaxies.

    Thanks to Chandra, the textbook on supermassive black holes is being completely rewritten, says Richard Mushotzky of the Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. "What Chandra has shown is that there are many more [supermassive black holes], by roughly a factor of five to ten, than we had thought," he says. "So Chandra has completely revolutionized that field."

    And because more giant black holes exist, Mushotzky explains, they must have played a more important role in galactic evolution than anyone previously imagined. "Chandra has told us there are a lot more black holes; that they're putting out a lot more energy than we thought; that they're being produced at different times and in different places than we had previously thought — and that this has important consequences for how the universe put itself together; for where, when, and how galaxies form."

    Chandra was designed for a 5-year mission, but the spacecraft's managers say there's no reason it can't last another decade or more. Chandra's only expendable item is the gas for its attitude-control jets, which allow the craft to adjust its orientation. Chandra, says Weisskopf, has "enough gas for 15 to 20 years" of service. Only worn-out parts and bad luck could end the mission. "We're hoping to operate for five, maybe ten more years," Weisskopf says.

    Chandra was conceived as part of NASA's Great Observatories program, which includes Hubble and the Spitzer Space Telescope, an infrared orbiting scope launched last year. Chandra is operated by astronomers at the Chandra X-ray Center at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and is managed by the Marshall Space Flight Center. The spacecraft is named for Indian-born astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who died in 1995.



     
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    #4993 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Dom, 22 de Ago de 2004 11:13 pm
    Assunto: Cinco novas luas revelam história de Netuno
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    Cinco novas luas revelam história de Netuno

    da Folha de S.Paulo

    Não é Netuno que tem poucas luas. É você que bebe pouco. Esse slogan poderia muito bem ter sido adotado por William Lassell (1799-1880), o astrônomo amador britânico que descobriu a primeira e maior de suas luas, Tritão, em 1846, financiado pelos lucros que tinha em sua cervejaria. Mas cai até melhor agora, com a descrição da descoberta de cinco novos satélites ao redor do planeta, feita por um grupo internacional de pesquisadores.

    Liderados por Matthew Holman, do Centro Harvard-Smithsonian para Astrofísica, nos EUA, eles demonstraram que Netuno não é tão diferente de seus outros primos gigantes gasosos no Sistema Solar, Júpiter, Saturno e Urano. Todos têm um monte de luas irregulares --em geral pequenas e às vezes girando na direção oposta à da rotação do planeta.

    Luas vêm em dois sabores: as regulares --em geral maiores e que giram junto com o planeta e mais perto dele, em órbitas quase circulares--, e as irregulares --tidas normalmente como asteróides e cometas capturados pela gravidade do planeta. A Lua, único satélite natural da Terra, é um bom exemplo de astro regular.

    Netuno, entretanto, parece ser muito esquisito no que diz respeito às suas luas. Para começar, Tritão, apesar de ser bem grande (com o tamanho aproximado do planeta Plutão, uns 2.700 km de diâmetro), possui movimento retrógrado (gira no sentido oposto ao da rotação do planeta).

    É a única grande lua do Sistema Solar a ter órbita retrógrada, o que fez com que os cientistas pensassem que ela não havia nascido como lua netuniana, e sim tenha sido capturada pela gravidade do planeta depois de formada.

    Para completar a esquisitice, Nereida, o terceiro maior satélite netuniano, tem uma órbita extremamente oval e incomum.

    Com o rápido sobrevôo da sonda norte-americana Voyager-2 pelo planeta, em 1989, outras seis luas foram descobertas --todas girando da maneira mais usual, com o planeta. Até hoje, foi a única espaçonave a passar perto de Netuno, que fica 30 vezes mais distante do Sol que a Terra.

    Caçadas astronômicas às luas netunianas foram conduzidas com telescópios antes e depois do vôo da Voyager, mas, até 2001, Netuno se mostrava totalmente livre de satélites irregulares distantes, apesar de ser o planeta mais próximo do grande repositório de cometas, o cinturão de Kuiper.

    Para explicar esse sistema notoriamente pobre em luas num planeta gigante gasoso, os cientistas supunham que um evento cataclísmico, com colisões e influências gravitacionais durante a captura de Tritão --o mesmo que teria colocado Nereida em sua órbita maluca--, teria destruído as luas irregulares mais distantes.

    A descoberta recente de novas luas irregulares em Júpiter, Saturno e Urano, no entanto, reacendeu a busca. E valeu a pena. Usando um método originalmente criado para caçar objetos no cinturão de Kuiper com um telescópio no Chile, a equipe liderada por Holman obteve imagens que detectaram mais cinco luas ao redor de Netuno. Todas pequenas, com diâmetros entre 30 e 50 km, duas com órbitas usuais, e três girando em sentido retrógrado.

    Um sexto objeto também foi detectado, mas ainda não se sabe se é um satélite girando ao redor de Netuno ou apenas um objeto do cinturão de Kuiper viajando naquela região, ao executar sua órbita ao redor do Sol.

    De todo jeito, as descobertas, consolidadas num estudo publicado na última edição da revista "Nature" (www.nature.com), alinham Netuno com seus aparentados no Sistema Solar. Ainda é o menor dos conjuntos de luas no Sistema Solar Exterior, com 13 membros. Mas a conta ainda tende a aumentar. Se fosse vivo, William Lassell certamente proporia um brinde.

    Especial

  • Arquivo: veja o que já foi publicado sobre o planeta Netuno



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    #4994 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Dom, 22 de Ago de 2004 11:29 pm
    Assunto: Rosetta Can "Smell" a Comet
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    Rosetta Can "Smell" a Comet

    Summary - (Aug 19, 2004) One experiment on board the European Space Agency's Rosetta spacecraft will let it cook particles from a comet in a miniature oven, and then "smell" the results. When Rosetta arrives at Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, it will send down a small spacecraft to actually land on its surface. This lander will be able to scoop up and drill samples from the comet's surface and then place them in an Evolved Gas Analyser. This tiny oven can heat the particles to 800 degrees Celsius which converts them into gas which can then be analyzed to understand what chemicals are present.

    Full Story -
    Image credit: ESA
    One of the ingenious instruments on board Rosetta is designed to ‘smell’ the comet for different substances, analysing samples that have been ‘cooked’ in a set of miniature ovens.

    ESA’s Rosetta will be the first space mission ever to land on a comet. After its lander reaches Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, the main spacecraft will follow the comet for many months as it heads towards the Sun.

    Rosetta's task is to study comets, which are considered the primitive building blocks of the Solar System. This will help us to understand if life on Earth began with the help of 'comet seeding'.

    The Ptolemy instrument is an ‘Evolved Gas Analyser’, the first example of a new concept in space instruments, devised to tackle the challenge of analysing substances ‘on location’ on bodies in our Solar System.

    Weighing just 4.5 kilograms and about the size of a shoe box, it was produced by a collaboration of the UK’s Rutherford Appleton Laboratory and Open University.

    The analysis of these samples from the surface of the comet will establish what the cometary nucleus is made from, providing valuable information about these most primitive objects.

    After the lander touches down on the comet, the Ptolemy instrument will collect comet nucleus material, believed to be a frozen mixture of ices, dust and tar, using the Sampling, Drilling and Distribution system (SD2) supplied by Tecnospazio Milano of Italy. SD2 will drill for small cores of ice and dust from depths of down to 250 millimetres.

    Samples collected in this way will be delivered to one of four tiny ‘ovens’ dedicated to Ptolemy, which are mounted on a circular, rotatable carousel. The German-supplied carousel has 32 of these ovens, with the remainder being used by other Rosetta instruments.

    Of the four Ptolemy ovens, three are for solid samples collected and delivered by SD2 while the fourth will be used to collect volatile materials from the near-surface cometary atmosphere.


    By heating the solid samples to 800 °C, the oven converts them into gases which then pass along a pipe into Ptolemy. The gas will then be separated into its constituent chemical species using a gas chromatograph.

    Ptolemy can then determine which chemicals are present in the comet sample, and hence help to build up a detailed picture of what the comet is made from.

    It does this using the world’s smallest ‘ion-trap mass spectrometer’, a small, low-power device built with the latest miniature technology. This device will find out what gases are present in any particular sample and measure stable isotope ratios.

    Original Source: ESA News Release



     
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    #4995 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Dom, 22 de Ago de 2004 11:15 pm
    Assunto: How Old is the Milky Way ?
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    How Old is the Milky Way ?

    VLT Observations of Beryllium in Two Old Stars Clock the Beginnings

    Summary

    Observations by an international team of astronomers [1] with the UVES spectrometer on ESO's Very Large Telescope at the Paranal Observatory (Chile) have thrown new light on the earliest epoch of the Milky Way galaxy.

    The first-ever measurement of the Beryllium content in two stars in a globular cluster (NGC 6397) - pushing current astronomical technology towards the limit - has made it possible to study the early phase between the formation of the first generation of stars in the Milky Way and that of this stellar cluster. This time interval was found to amount to 200 - 300 million years.

    The age of the stars in NGC 6397, as determined by means of stellar evolution models, is 13,400 ± 800 million years. Adding the two time intervals gives the age of the Milky Way, 13,600 ± 800 million years.

    The currently best estimate of the age of the Universe, as deduced, e.g., from measurements of the Cosmic Microwave Background, is 13,700 million years. The new observations thus indicate that the first generation of stars in the Milky Way galaxy formed soon after the end of the ~200 million-year long "Dark Ages" that succeeded the Big Bang.

    PR Photo 23a/04: Globular cluster NGC 6397
    PR Photo 23b/04: The stars A0228 and A2111 in NGC 6397.
    PR Photo 23c/04: UVES spectra of the stars A0228 and A2111 in NGC 6397 with Beryllium lines.


    The age of the Milky Way

    ESO PR Photo 23a/04

    ESO PR Photo 23a/04

    Globular Cluster NGC 6397

    [Preview - JPEG: 400 x 472 pix - 316k]
    [Normal - JPEG: 800 x 943 pix - 943k]
    [Full Res - JPEG: 4000 x 4717 pix - 16.3M]

    Caption: ESO PR Photo 23a/04 shows the globular cluster NGC 6397, located at a distance of approx. 7,200 light-years in the southern constellation Ara. It has undergone a "core collapse" and the central area is very dense. It contains about 400,000 stars and its age (based on evolutionary models) is 13,400 ± 800 million years. The photo is a composite of exposures in the B- , V- and I-bands obtained in the frame of the Pilot Stellar Survey with the Wide-Field-Imager (WFI) camera at the 2.2-m ESO/MPI telescope at the ESO La Silla Observatory. It was prepared and provided by the ESO Imaging Survey team. The spikes seen at some of the brighter stars are caused by the effect of overexposure (CCD "bleeding").

    How old is the Milky Way ? When did the first stars in our galaxy ignite ?

    A proper understanding of the formation and evolution of the Milky Way system is crucial for our knowledge of the Universe. Nevertheless, the related observations are among the most difficult ones, even with the most powerful telescopes available, as they involve a detailed study of old, remote and mostly faint celestial objects.

    Globular clusters and the ages of stars

    Modern astrophysics is capable of measuring the ages of certain stars, that is the time elapsed since they were formed by condensation in huge interstellar clouds of gas and dust. Some stars are very "young" in astronomical terms, just a few million years old like those in the nearby Orion Nebula. The Sun and its planetary system was formed about 4,560 million years ago, but many other stars formed much earlier. Some of the oldest stars in the Milky Way are found in large stellar clusters, in particular in "globular clusters" (PR Photo 23a/04), so called because of their spheroidal shape.

    Stars belonging to a globular cluster were born together, from the same cloud and at the same time. Since stars of different masses evolve at different rates, it is possible to measure the age of globular clusters with a reasonably good accuracy. The oldest ones are found to be more than 13,000 million years old.

    Still, those cluster stars were not the first stars to be formed in the Milky Way. We know this, because they contain small amounts of certain chemical elements which must have been synthesized in an earlier generation of massive stars that exploded as supernovae after a short and energetic life. The processed material was deposited in the clouds from which the next generations of stars were made, cf. ESO PR 03/01.

    Despite intensive searches, it has until now not been possible to find less massive stars of this first generation that might still be shining today. Hence, we do not know when these first stars were formed. For the time being, we can only say that the Milky Way must be older than the oldest globular cluster stars.

    But how much older?

    Beryllium to the rescue

    What astrophysicists would like to have is therefore a method to measure the time interval between the formation of the first stars in the Milky Way (of which many quickly became supernovae) and the moment when the stars in a globular cluster of known age were formed. The sum of this time interval and the age of those stars would then be the age of the Milky Way.

    New observations with the VLT at ESO's Paranal Observatory have now produced a break-through in this direction. The magic element is "Beryllium"!

    Beryllium is one of the lightest elements [2] - the nucleus of the most common and stable isotope (Beryllium-9) consists of four protons and five neutrons. Only hydrogen, helium and lithium are lighter. But while those three were produced during the Big Bang, and while most of the heavier elements were produced later in the interior of stars, Beryllium-9 can only be produced by "cosmic spallation". That is, by fragmentation of fast-moving heavier nuclei - originating in the mentioned supernovae explosions and referred to as energetic "galactic cosmic rays" - when they collide with light nuclei (mostly protons and alpha particles, i.e. hydrogen and helium nuclei) in the interstellar medium.

    Galactic cosmic rays and the Beryllium clock

    The galactic cosmic rays travelled all over the early Milky Way, guided by the cosmic magnetic field. The resulting production of Beryllium was quite uniform within the galaxy. The amount of Beryllium increased with time and this is why it might act as a "cosmic clock".

    The longer the time that passed between the formation of the first stars (or, more correctly, their quick demise in supernovae explosions) and the formation of the globular cluster stars, the higher was the Beryllium content in the interstellar medium from which they were formed. Thus, assuming that this Beryllium is preserved in the stellar atmosphere, the more Beryllium is found in such a star, the longer is the time interval between the formation of the first stars and of this star.

    The Beryllium may therefore provide us with unique and crucial information about the duration of the early stages of the Milky Way.

    A very difficult observation

    So far, so good. The theoretical foundations for this dating method were developed during the past three decades and all what is needed is then to measure the Beryllium content in some globular cluster stars.

    But this is not as simple as it sounds! The main problem is that Beryllium is destroyed at temperatures above a few million degrees. When a star evolves towards the luminous giant phase, violent motion (convection) sets in, the gas in the upper stellar atmosphere gets into contact with the hot interior gas in which all Beryllium has been destroyed and the initial Beryllium content in the stellar atmosphere is thus significantly diluted. To use the Beryllium clock, it is therefore necessary to measure the content of this element in less massive, less evolved stars in the globular cluster. And these so-called "turn-off (TO) stars" are intrinsically faint.

    In fact, the technical problem to overcome is three-fold: First, all globular clusters are quite far away and as the stars to be measured are intrinsically faint, they appear quite faint in the sky. Even in NGC6397, the second closest globular cluster, the TO stars have a visual magnitude of ~16, or 10000 times fainter than the faintest star visible to the unaided eye. Secondly, there are only two Beryllium signatures (spectral lines) visible in the stellar spectrum and as these old stars do contain comparatively little Beryllium, those lines are very weak, especially when compared to neighbouring spectral lines from other elements. And third, the two Beryllium lines are situated in a little explored spectral region at wavelength 313 nm, i.e., in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum that is strongly affected by absorption in the terrestrial atmosphere near the cut-off at 300 nm, below which observations from the ground are no longer possible.

    It is thus no wonder that such observations had never been made before, the technical difficulties were simply unsurmountable.

    VLT and UVES do the job

    ESO PR Photo 23b/04

    ESO PR Photo 23b/04

    Stars A0228 and A2111 in NGC 6397

    [Preview - JPEG: 580 x 400 pix - 143k]
    [Normal - JPEG: 1160 x 800 pix - 33k]

    ESO PR Photo 23c/04

    ESO PR Photo 23c/04

    UVES spectra of the stars A0228 and A2111 in Globular Cluster NGC 6397

    [Preview - JPEG: 400 x 468 pix - 115k]
    [Normal - JPEG: 800 x 925 pix - 272k]

    Captions: ESO PR Photo 23b/04 identifies the two stars in the globular cluster NGC 6397 for which spectra were obtained with the UVES spectrometer on the VLT (at the centre of the fields shown). The photos have been extracted from PR Photo 23a/04 by the Wide-Field-Imager (WFI) camera at the 2.2-m ESO/MPI telescope at the ESO La Silla Observatory. ESO PR Photo 23c/04 is a reproduction of a small wavelength region of the spectra obtained with the UVES spectrometer at the 8.2-m Kueyen telescope at Paranal of these stars (above), together with that of another nearby star, HD 218502, a field star in which the Beryllium lines are also visible (below). This star, however, is not a member of a cluster and its age is not well known. The achieved signal-to-noise ratios are indicated. The best-fitting synthetic spectra are show as red dots; in the spectrum of A2111, the blue dashed lines illustrate the accuracy of the fit - they correspond to a variation of the Beryllium content by approx. ± 50% (0.2 dex).

    Using the high-performance UVES spectrometer on the 8.2-m Kuyen telescope of ESO's Very Large Telescope at the Paranal Observatory (Chile) which is particularly sensitive to ultraviolet light, a team of ESO and Italian astronomers [1] succeeded in obtaining the first reliable measurements of the Beryllium content in two TO-stars (denoted "A0228" and "A2111") in the globular cluster NGC 6397 (PR Photo 23b/04). Located at a distance of about 7,200 light-years in the direction of a rich stellar field in the southern constellation Ara, it is one of the two nearest stellar clusters of this type; the other is Messier 4.

    The observations were done during several nights in the course of 2003. Totalling more than 10 hours of exposure on each of the 16th-magnitude stars, they pushed the VLT and UVES towards the technical limit. Reflecting on the technological progress, the leader of the team, ESO-astronomer Luca Pasquini, is elated: "Just a few years ago, any observation like this would have been impossible and just remained an astronomer's dream!"

    The resulting spectra (PR Photo 23c/04) of the faint stars show the weak signatures of Beryllium ions (Be II). Comparing the observed spectrum with a series of synthetic spectra with different Beryllium content (in astrophysics: "abundance") allowed the astronomers to find the best fit and thus to measure the very small amount of Beryllium in these stars: for each Beryllium atom there are about 2,224,000,000,000 hydrogen atoms.

    Beryllium lines are also seen in another star of the same type as these stars, HD 218052, cf. PR Photo 23c/04. However, it is not a member of a cluster and its age is by far not as well known as that of the cluster stars. Its Beryllium content is quite similar to that of the cluster stars, indicating that this field star was born at about the same time as the cluster.

    From the Big Bang until now

    According to the best current spallation theories, the measured amount of Beryllium must have accumulated in the course of 200 - 300 million years. Italian astronomer Daniele Galli, another member of the team, does the calculation: "So now we know that the age of the Milky Way is this much more than the age of that globular cluster - our galaxy must therefore be 13,600 ± 800 million years old. This is the first time we have obtained an independent determination of this fundamental value!".

    Within the given uncertainties, this number also fits very well with the current estimate of the age of the Universe, 13,700 million years, that is the time elapsed since the Big Bang. It thus appears that the first generation of stars in the Milky Way galaxy was formed at about the time the "Dark Ages" ended, now believed to be some 200 million years after the Big Bang.

    It would seem that the system in which we live may indeed be one of the "founding" members of the galaxy population in the Universe.


    More information

    The research presented in this press release is discussed in a paper entitled "Be in turn-off stars of NGC 6397: early Galaxy spallation, cosmochronology and cluster formation" by L. Pasquini and co-authors that will be published in the European research journal "Astronomy & Astrophysics" (astro-ph/0407524).


    Notes

    [1] The team is composed of Luca Pasquini (ESO), Piercarlo Bonifacio (INAF-Osservatorio di Trieste, Italy), Sofia Randich and Daniele Galli (INAF-Osservatorio di Arcetri, Firenze, Italy), and Raffaele G. Gratton (INAF-Osservatorio di Padova, Italy) .

    [2] Interestingly, the secondary mirrors of the four VLT Unit Telescopes are made of Beryllium in order to make them as light as possible while retaining the necessary stiffness. Each of the four mirrors measures 1.1 metres across and weighs about 50 kilograms.


    Contact

    Luca Pasquini
    ESO
    Garching, Germany
    Phone: +49-89-3200-6792
    Email: lpasquin@...

    Daniele Galli
    INAF-Osservatorio di Arcetri
    Italy
    Phone: +39-055-2752249
    Email: galli@...




     
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    #4996 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Dom, 22 de Ago de 2004 11:30 pm
    Assunto: Eroded Valleys on Mars
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    Eroded Valleys on Mars

    Summary - (Aug 16, 2004) This image was taken by the European Space Agency's Mars Express spacecraft, and shows a system of outflow channels called the Dao Valles and Niger Valles; it was taken in June 2004, during the spacecraft's 528th orbit. The eroded channels are in a region of Mars that's near the southern flank of the Hadriaca Patera volcano, so they could have been created by fast moving lava "running off" during an eruption.

    Full Story - This image, taken by the High Resolution Stereo Camera (HRSC) on board ESA's Mars Express spacecraft, shows the Dao Valles and Niger Valles, a system of outflow channels on Mars.

    The image was taken during orbit 528 in June 2004, and shows the Dao Valles and Niger Valles areas at a point where the north-eastern Hellas impact crater basin and the Hesperia Planum volcanic region meet.

    The image is centred at Mars longitude 93° East and latitude 32° South. The image resolution is 40 metres per pixel.

    The outflow channel system is, in some areas, 40 kilometres wide. The north-eastern ends of the two valleys are almost 200 metres deeper than the south-western regions which are also shown here. The northern Dao Valles, 2400 metres deep, is about 1000 metres deeper than the more southern Niger Valles.

    The structure of the valley floor of the Niger Valles is characterised by terraced basins and chaotic fractures. The floor of the Dao Valles is much smoother, but covered with strongly eroded remnants.

    These eroded valleys are in a region which is part of the southern flank of the Hadriaca Patera volcano. The surrounding surface is formed by lava streams, probably in a 'runoff' process.

    Original Source: ESA News Release


     
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    #4997 De: Astronomy News® <astronomynews@...>
    Data: Dom, 22 de Ago de 2004 11:31 pm
    Assunto: Ganymede's Lumpy Interior
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    Ganymede's Lumpy Interior

    Summary - (Aug 16, 2004) Scientists have used data from NASA's Galileo spacecraft to uncover strange rocky lumps underneath Ganymede's icy shell. One theory is that they're rock formations, lodged deep in the ice and held up for billions of years. The data was gathered by Galileo during its second flyby of the moon in 1996. This discovery challenges theories about the thickness and strength of Ganymede's ice - you would expect the rocks held up at the top, or resting at the bottom, but not somewhere in the middle. Galileo was crashed into Jupiter nearly a year ago.

    Full Story - Scientists have discovered irregular lumps beneath the icy surface of Jupiter's largest moon, Ganymede. These irregular masses may be rock formations, supported by Ganymede's icy shell for billions of years. This discovery comes nearly a year after the orchestrated demise of NASA's Galileo spacecraft into Jupiter's atmosphere and more than seven years after the data were collected.

    Researchers at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, Calif., and the University of California, Los Angeles, report their findings in a paper that will appear in the Aug. 13 issue of the journal Science.

    The findings have caused scientists to rethink what the interior of Ganymede might contain. The reported bulges reside in the interior, and there are no visible surface features associated with them. This tells scientists that the ice is probably strong enough, at least near the surface, to support these possible rock masses from sinking to the bottom of the ice for billions of years. But this anomaly could also be caused by piles of rock at the bottom of the ice.

    "The anomalies could be large concentrations of rock at or underneath the ice surface. They could also be in a layer of mixed ice and rock below the surface with variations in the amount of rock," said Dr. John Anderson, a scientist and the paper's lead author at JPL. "If there is a liquid water ocean inside Ganymede's outer ice layer there might be variations in its depth with piles of rock at the ocean bottom. There could be topographic variations in a hidden rocky surface underlying a deep outer icy shell. There are many possibilities, and we need to do more studies."

    Dr. Gerald Schubert, co-author at UCLA, said "Although we don't yet have anything definitive about the depth at this point, we did not expect Ganymede's ice shell to be strong enough to support these lumpy mass concentrations. Thus, we expect that the irregularities would be close to the surface where the ice is coldest and strongest, or at the bottom of the thick ice shell resting on the underlying rock. It would really be a surprise if these masses were deep and in the middle of the ice shell."

    Ganymede has three main layers. A sphere of metallic iron at the center (the core), a spherical shell of rock (mantle) surrounding the core, and a spherical shell of mostly ice surrounding the rock shell and the core. The ice shell on the outside is very thick, maybe 800 kilometers (497 miles) thick. The surface is the very top of the ice shell. Though it is mostly ice, the ice shell might contain some rock mixed in. Scientists believe there must be a fair amount of rock in the ice near the surface. Variations in this amount of rock may be the source of these possible rock formations.

    Scientists stumbled on the results by studying Doppler measurements of Ganymede's gravity field during Galileo's second flyby of the moon in 1996. Scientists were measuring the effect of the moon's gravity on the spacecraft as it flew by. They found unexpected variations.

    "Believe it or not, it took us this long to straighten out the anomaly question, mostly because we were analyzing all 31 close flybys for all four of Jupiter's large moons," said Anderson. "In the end, we concluded that there is only one flyby, the second flyby of Ganymede, where mass anomalies are evident."

    Scientists have seen mass concentration anomalies on one other moon before, Earth's, during the first lunar orbiter missions in the 1960s. The lunar mass concentrations during the Apollo moon mission era were due to lava in flat basins. However, scientists cannot draw any similarities between these mass concentrations and what they see at Ganymede.

    "The fact that these mass anomalies can be detected with just flybys is significant for future missions," said Dr. Torrence Johnson, former Galileo project scientist. "With this type of information you could make detailed gravity and altitude maps that allow us to actually map structures within the ice crust or on the rocky surface. Knowing more about the interior of Ganymede raises the level of importance of looking for gravity anomalies around Jupiter's moons and gives us something to look for. This might be something NASA's proposed Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter Mission could probe into deeper."

    The paper was co-authored by Dr. Robert A. Jacobson and Eunice L. Lau of JPL, with Dr. William B. Moore and Jennifer L. Palguta of UCLA. JPL is a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. JPL designed and built the Galileo orbiter, and operated the mission. For images and information about the Galileo mission, visit http://galileo.jpl.nasa.gov.



     
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    #4998 De: José Geraldo Mattos <geraldomattos@...>
    Data: Seg, 23 de Ago de 2004 9:09 pm
    Assunto: August astro bytes
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    August astro bytes
    August 12, 2004
    Solar sail milestone
    The Space Research Institute in Moscow has concluded testing of mission control software and flight electronics for Cosmos 1, meaning that the solar sail project is closer to launch. Sponsored by the Cosmos Studios, this Planetary Society mission hopes to perform the first controlled solar sail flight.
    Solar sail in orbit
    Babakin Space Center, The Planetary Society
    The idea holds that solar sails would propel vehicles in space much as wind sails propel a boat. Solar sails, as the name suggests, would be driven by solar energy particles. This would reduce the need for fuel and thus decrease the weight of the spacecraft.

    "This long-anticipated and crucial milestone gives us the green light to begin final assembly of the spacecraft," says Louis Friedman, Executive Director of the Planetary Society and Project Director of Cosmos 1. "If all goes well, we plan to ship the spacecraft to the launch preparation site near the port of Murmansk by the end of November."

    Cosmos 1 will be carried aboard a Volna rocket launched from a Russian submarine beneath the Barents Sea. Primarily selected due to its relative affordability, the launch method was also chosen because it is easier to transport Cosmos 1 from Moscow to Murmansk. — Jeremy McGovern
    August 5, 2004
    Future missions will look for origins
    NASA recently selected nine studies from 26 submissions to investigate further for its Astronomical Search for Origins Program. Each of the nine studies listed below will have 8 months to develop and refine its concept for a mission that would complement the program's ongoing science goals. The Origins Program seeks to understand where we came from and whether we are alone in the universe. — Laura Baird

    • Studying the far-infrared universe, BLISS will enable spectroscopy of some of the farthest galaxies known. The principal investigator for BLISS is Matt Bradford of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California.
    • The Origins Billion Star Survey (OBSS) will survey extrasolar planets within our solar system and study stars within 30,000 light-years of the Sun. The principal investigator for OBSS is Kenneth Johnston of the U.S. Naval Observatory in Washington.
    • The very high angular resolution of the Space Infrared Interferometric Telescope (SPIRIT) will advance research about star and planet formation. This principal investigator for SPIRIT is David Leisawitz of the Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland.
    • By conducting a space-based near-infrared large-area redshift survey, the Cosmic Inflation Probe (CIP) will detect galaxies that formed during the early universe. The principal investigator for CIP is Gary Melnick of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
    • In addition to investigating star formation, the High Orbit Ultraviolet-visible Satellite (HORUS) will probe the origin of elements and cosmic structures as well as the compositions of atmospheres on extrasolar planets. The principal investigator for HORUS is Jon Morse of Arizona State University.
    • The Hubble Origins Probe aims to use tools developed for the fifth Hubble servicing mission, which was cancelled, to focus on the time when star and planet formation was at its highest. The principal investigator for this study is Colin Norman of Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore.
    • An infrared space telescope called ASPIRE (Astrobiology SPace InfraRed Explorer) will hunt for organic compounds in deep space and around other stars using spectroscopy. Such compounds are building blocks for life. The mission's principal investigator is Scott Sandford of NASA's Ames Research Center at Moffett Field, California.
    • By mapping matter in the early universe, the Baryonic Structure Probe will bolster observational cosmology. The principal investigator for this project is Kenneth Sembach of the Space Science Telescope Institute in Baltimore.
    • The Galaxy Evolution and Origins Probe (GEOP) will observe more than 5 million galaxies to study long-term changes in star formation as well as in galaxy size and brightness. The principal investigator for GEOP is Rodger Thompson of the University of Arizona.
    MESSENGER movies
    NASA / JHUAPL / Carnegie Institution of Washington
    August 2, 2004
    Storm delays MESSENGER liftoff
    The launch of the MESSENGER space probe to Mercury, scheduled for August 2, 2004, was scrubbed because of bad weather from Tropical Storm Alex. Flight controllers will next attempt to launch the spacecraft at 2:16 A.M., August 3rd.
    — Robert Burnham

    Visiting Mars through the web
    Initially a tool providing scientists with data and helping them select potential landing sites on Mars, a NASA web site has evolved to serve the general public. Marsoweb allows all visitors to use tools to explore wide, immense regions or finer details of the Red Planet's surface.

    Marsoweb changes occurred largely due to the overwhelming response the site received in January, after the Mars Exploration Rover Spirit landed on Mars. The site encountered over 26.7 million hits in the month following the landing.

    "An interactive data map on Marsoweb allows users to view most Mars data including images, thermal inertia, geologic and topographical maps and engineering data that includes rock abundance," says Virginia Gulick from NASA's Ames Research Center.
    "The engineering data give scientists an idea of how smooth or rocky the local surface is."

    NASA researchers plan to encourage visitors to survey Mars virtually in search of significant geologic features hidden in thousands of surface images. Beginning in November 2006, researchers hope volunteers will help with imaging from an upcoming Mars imaging mission. Aboard the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, the High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) will image objects about a meter wide on the Red Planet's surface.

    "We will ask volunteers to help us create geologic feature databases of boulders, gullies, craters — any kind of geologic feature that may be of interest," says Gulick. "Scientists or students can use these databases to propose theories about Mars that could be proven by future exploration." — Jeremy McGovern


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    #4999 De: José Geraldo Mattos <geraldomattos@...>
    Data: Seg, 23 de Ago de 2004 9:05 pm
    Assunto: A Martian Mountain Vista
    geraldomattos
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    A Martian Mountain Vista
    By Robert Naeye

     Courtesy NASA/JPL/Cornell University.
     
     
    August 19, 2004 | While NASA's Mars rover Opportunity has enjoyed the headline-grabbing discoveries, Spirit has been biding its time in Gusev Crater, waiting for its moment in the Sun. That moment may soon be at hand. The vehicle has climbed 9 meters (30 feet) high into the Columbia Hills, where its Panoramic camera acquired this near-true-color mosaic of the surrounding plain (Gusev's rim appears on the horizon). Spirit's spectrometers are currently examining a rock outcrop named Clovis whose chemical composition suggests past interactions with liquid water. Meanwhile, on the other side of Mars, Opportunity continues to investigate Endurance Crater, where it is finding intriguing but as-yet unexplained chemical differences between rocks near the rim and rocks near the floor. Both rovers remain in excellent health despite the onset of winter, but are showing signs of age. "They're developing aches and pains, just as you would if you were operating two times past your design life," says rover mission manager Chris Salvo (NASA/Jet Propulsion Laboratory).


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    José Geraldo Mattos
     
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    #5000 De: José Geraldo Mattos <geraldomattos@...>
    Data: Seg, 23 de Ago de 2004 9:15 pm
    Assunto: galaxy's fatal plunge
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    galaxy's fatal plunge
    CHANDRA PHOTO RELEASE
    Posted: August 22, 2004

    These images offer a dramatic look at C153, a galaxy being ripped apart as it races at 4.5 million miles per hour through a distant cluster of galaxies. The infalling galaxy's gas is being stripped by the pressure of 20-million-degree Celsius gas that permeates the cluster.


    Credit: X-ray: NASA/CXC/SAO/UMass/D. Wang et al. Optical: NASA/STScI/U. Alabama/W. Keel Radio: NRAO/ F. Owen Optical (OII): Gemini Obs./M. Ledlow
     
    At left is a composite image made by combining the four images at right, taken in X-ray, radio, and visible wavelengths as well as the visible, green light emitted by oxygen ions. Long comet-like streamers of gas can be seen flowing from the galaxy as it travels through the cluster called Abell 2125. The images span about one million light years.

    The Chandra X-ray image shows a tail of hot gas extending from C153. The temperature of the gas tail is about 10 million degrees Celsius, cooler than the surrounding cluster gas. This temperature difference is further evidence that gas is being stripped from the galaxy. The image taken in visible light from glowing oxygen ions shows a similar tail forming as gas with a temperature of about 10,000 degrees Celsius is pulled from the galaxy.

    Hubble's broad band visible-light image reveals intricate detail in the distribution of stars and dust within C153. The galaxy exhibits evidence of a large-scale disturbance that has left its star-forming regions concentrated to one side of its disk and beyond. Dust features are twisted into chaotic patterns, obscuring any spiral pattern the galaxy once had.

    Radio observations depict high-energy particles as they spiral through the galaxy's magnetic field, with some escaping in a perpendicular direction to the galaxy's disk. The high-energy particles probably came from a supermassive black hole.

    Fonte:    http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n0408/22chandra/

    Abraços

    José Geraldo Mattos
     
    Gosta de fotografia? : http://www.terra.com.br/fotos/album.cgi/633910
    ___________________________________________
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    Trindade, Florianópolis, SC,Brasil
    CEP 88.049-000 Fone (48) 9914.5078 ( 48) 331.9868
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    ___________________________________________

    #5001 De: José Geraldo Mattos <geraldomattos@...>
    Data: Seg, 23 de Ago de 2004 9:08 pm
    Assunto: Mars rover update
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    Mars rover update
    Longhorn vista
    Spirit's cameras captured this scenic view across the sweeping plains of Gusev Crater on Sol 210. In the foreground is a rock outcrop dubbed Longhorn. The rim of Gusev Crater forms the horizon. NASA / JPL / Cornell [larger image]
    August 18, 2004; updated August 19
    Mission scientists report that while the twin Mars rovers, Spirit and Opportunity, are starting to show some wear and tear after weathering more than 8 months on the Red Planet, they continue to return exciting data to Earth. The initial 3-month mission for each rover was completed successfully in April, and the extended missions are a boon that investigators hope will last through the martian winter.

    Spirit, plagued by a bum wheel, has been driving on five of its six wheels except on the most difficult terrain. Having traveled more than 3 kilometers from its landing site, Spirit currently is positioned at an outcrop named Clovis inside the Columbia Hills. Preliminary images and data indicate the area contains rocks that were altered by water sometime in Mars's past.

    Compared to basalt from within the crater, Clovis contains a greater concentration of water-soluble elements, including sulfur, chlorine, and bromine. "This is the most compelling — most powerful — evidence [for water] that we have seen in the rocks at Gusev," said Steve Squyres of Cornell University and principal investigator for the science instruments on both rovers. "So far, we have intriguing clues hinting that this rock Clovis has interacted with liquid water. We still need to understand the nature of that interaction."
    Blueberries and popcorn
    In this false-color image from Opportunity, a mixture of blueberries and the more irregular, lighter-colored spherules scientists have named "popcorn" lie atop a rock named Bylot in the Axel Heiberg outcrop at Endurance Crater. NASA / JPL / Cornell [larger image]
    At Meridiani Planum, Opportunity has been driving carefully into Endurance Crater. During its descent, the rover took detailed measurements of progressively older rocks in the stratigraphy. The samples showed that while the amount of sulfur and magnesium in the rocks declines slightly, the amount of chlorine present rises dramatically. While the samples indicate the rocks have basically the same general chemistry, the layers probably were deposited there under different conditions.

    Also deep in the crater, at Axel Heiberg outcrop, scientists are investigating what appear to be variations of the now-familiar "blueberry." Red instead of blue-gray and coarse instead of smooth, the newly identified "popcorn" rocks also vary in size unlike the blueberries. In some cases, spherules contain a mixture of both red and blue particles. While a number of hypotheses have been suggested, the exact origin of these concretions remains a mystery. Says Zoe Learner, a science team collaborator from Cornell, "even though we've driven away [from the area], we're definitely going to look at this data a lot more carefully."

    So while scientists continue to puzzle over new data and piece together Mars's history, the rovers ramble on. After it concludes its investigation of Clovis, Spirit will be headed uphill toward some layered bedrock. Opportunity may linger at the base of Endurance crater to probe the edge of a dune field, but only if mission planners deem it safe. The rover also will investigate a very unusual-looking, lumpy rock on its way out. If the solar-powered batteries on each rover can withstand progressively lower Sun angles as winter advances on Mars, we can expect more exciting discoveries — and questions — to come.
    Spirit view across Gusev Crater, Sol 219
    Spirit looked out across Gusev Crater from another Columbia Hills rock outcrop on Sol 219. NASA / JPL / Cornell [larger image]



    Abraços

    José Geraldo Mattos
     
    Gosta de fotografia? : http://www.terra.com.br/fotos/album.cgi/633910
    ___________________________________________
    Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina
    HU - Serviço de Controle Financeiro S/N
    Trindade, Florianópolis, SC,Brasil
    CEP 88.049-000 Fone (48) 9914.5078 ( 48) 331.9868
    http://www.gea.org.br/scf
    ___________________________________________

    #5002 De: José Geraldo Mattos <geraldomattos@...>
    Data: Seg, 23 de Ago de 2004 9:13 pm
    Assunto: Cooking on a comet
    geraldomattos
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    Cooking on a comet
    EUROPEAN SPACE AGENCY NEWS RELEASE
    Posted: August 19, 2004

    One of the ingenious instruments on board Rosetta is designed to 'smell' the comet for different substances, analysing samples that have been 'cooked' in a set of miniature ovens.

    ESA's Rosetta will be the first space mission ever to land on a comet. After its lander reaches Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko, the main spacecraft will follow the comet for many months as it heads towards the Sun.

    Rosetta's task is to study comets, which are considered the primitive building blocks of the Solar System. This will help us to understand if life on Earth began with the help of 'comet seeding'.

    The Ptolemy instrument is an 'Evolved Gas Analyser', the first example of a new concept in space instruments, devised to tackle the challenge of analysing substances 'on location' on bodies in our Solar System.

    Weighing just 4.5 kilograms and about the size of a shoe box, it was produced by a collaboration of the UK's Rutherford Appleton Laboratory and Open University.

    The analysis of these samples from the surface of the comet will establish what the cometary nucleus is made from, providing valuable information about these most primitive objects.

    After the lander touches down on the comet, the Ptolemy instrument will collect comet nucleus material, believed to be a frozen mixture of ices, dust and tar, using the Sampling, Drilling and Distribution system (SD2) supplied by Tecnospazio Milano of Italy. SD2 will drill for small cores of ice and dust from depths of down to 250 millimetres.

    Samples collected in this way will be delivered to one of four tiny 'ovens' dedicated to Ptolemy, which are mounted on a circular, rotatable carousel. The German-supplied carousel has 32 of these ovens, with the remainder being used by other Rosetta instruments.

    Of the four Ptolemy ovens, three are for solid samples collected and delivered by SD2 while the fourth will be used to collect volatile materials from the near-surface cometary atmosphere.

    By heating the solid samples to 800 °C, the oven converts them into gases which then pass along a pipe into Ptolemy. The gas will then be separated into its constituent chemical species using a gas chromatograph.

    Ptolemy can then determine which chemicals are present in the comet sample, and hence help to build up a detailed picture of what the comet is made from.

    It does this using the world's smallest 'ion-trap mass spectrometer', a small, low-power device built with the latest miniature technology. This device will find out what gases are present in any particular sample and measure stable isotope ratios.    

    http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n0408/19rosetta/


    Abraços

    José Geraldo Mattos
     
    Gosta de fotografia? : http://www.terra.com.br/fotos/album.cgi/633910
    ___________________________________________
    Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina
    HU - Serviço de Controle Financeiro S/N
    Trindade, Florianópolis, SC,Brasil
    CEP 88.049-000 Fone (48) 9914.5078 ( 48) 331.9868
    http://www.gea.org.br/scf
    ___________________________________________

    #5003 De: José Geraldo Mattos <geraldomattos@...>
    Data: Seg, 23 de Ago de 2004 8:57 pm
    Assunto: Chance de ser atingido por meteorito é quase nula
    geraldomattos
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    Chance de ser atingido por meteorito é quase nula
     
    É mais provável ganhar na Mega Sena do que morrer por causa de um objeto vindo do espaço

    Evanildo da Silveira escreve para ‘O Estado de SP’:

    O bombardeio diário da Terra por objetos vindo do espaço não deve preocupar ninguém. A chance de alguém ser atingido por um meteorito é quase nula.

    Há notícia de gente que morreu de tudo quanto é jeito, mas não há registro de alguém que tenha perdido a vida atingido por algo vindo do espaço - salvo aviões.

    Segundo o astrônomo Ronaldo Rogério de Freitas Mourão, a única vítima de um bólido vindo do céu é um cachorro.

    ‘Em 28 de junho de 1911, um meteorito de origem marciana caiu em Alexandria, no Egito’, conta. ‘Após o aparecimento de uma nuvem seguida de várias detonações, caíram cerca de 40 fragmentos, partes de uma massa total de 40 quilos, cujos pesos individuais variavam de 20 gramas a 1.813 gramas. Uma destas pedras matou um cão, que estava na hora errada no lugar errado.’

    Embora nenhum ser humano tenha sido morto até hoje, há pelo menos um caso de pessoa atingida por um objeto vindo espaço.

    ‘O único acidente de um meteorito com vítima conhecida, nos tempos modernos, ocorreu em 1954 com uma mulher, chamada Hewlett Hodges’, conta Mourão.

    ‘O objeto atravessou o teto da sua casa, em Sylacauga, Alabama, nos EUA, e atingiu a parte superior de sua coxa esquerda, provocando uma extensa contusão. Milagrosamente ela escapou com vida ao impacto.’

    Segundo ele, além desses casos, há algumas dezenas de outros nos quais os objetos caíram sobre casas, carros ou próximo de pessoas. Mas o máximo que aconteceu com elas foi um grande susto.

    ‘É mais provável acertar sozinho na Mega Sena do que ser morto por um meteorito’, tranqüiliza Mourão.
    (O Estado de SP, 22/8)



    Abraços

    José Geraldo Mattos
     
    Gosta de fotografia? : http://www.terra.com.br/fotos/album.cgi/633910
    ___________________________________________
    Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina
    HU - Serviço de Controle Financeiro S/N
    Trindade, Florianópolis, SC,Brasil
    CEP 88.049-000 Fone (48) 9914.5078 ( 48) 331.9868
    http://www.gea.org.br/scf
    ___________________________________________

    #5004 De: José Geraldo Mattos <geraldomattos@...>
    Data: Seg, 23 de Ago de 2004 9:12 pm
    Assunto: Meteorite has record of its lunar launch site
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    Meteorite has record of its lunar launch site
    UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA NEWS RELEASE
    Posted: August 21, 2004

    Scientists have pinpointed the source of a meteorite from the moon for the first time. Their unique meteorite records four separate lunar impacts.

    They are the first to precisely date Mare Imbrium, the youngest of the large meteorite craters on the moon. That date, 3.9 billion years ago, is a new key date for lunar and even terrestrial stratigraphy, the scientists say, because life on Earth would have evolved only after heavy meteorite bombardment ended.

    Geologists who found the meteorite and scientists from Swiss, Swedish, German, British, and Arizona laboratories who analyzed the unique stone report their work in the July 30 issue of Science. Swiss geologist Edwin Gnos is first author of the article titled "Pinpointing the Source of Lunar Meteorite: Implications for the Evolution of the Moon."

    Gnos, Ali Al-Kathiri and Beda Hofmann found the 206-gram (7-ounce) meteorite in Oman on Jan. 16, 2002. The geologists were on a joint meteorite search expedition sponsored by the Government of Oman, the Natural History Museum of Berne and the University of Berne.

    "The desert in Oman is the new place to find meteorites," said A.J. Tim Jull of the University of Arizona in Tucson. Jull directs the National Science Foundation - Arizona Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) Laboratory. He analyzed beryllium and carbon isotopes that told how long the meteorite was in space after it was launched from the moon and how long ago it fell to Earth at Oman.

    Scientists who've acquired the special permits needed to search for meteorites in Oman and North Africa during the past half-dozen years have been amply rewarded, Jull said. Seven of the 30 known lunar meteorites have been found in Oman, and five have been found in North Africa. One was found in Australia and the rest have been found in Antarctica. Hot or cold, arid climates preserve meteorites from quickly weathering, Jull noted.

    Gnos, Al-Kathiri and Hofmann recognized in the field that the meteorite was of lunar or martian origin because it wasn't magnetic. Meteorites from planetary bodies don't contain metal. And, typical of lunar rocks, it was greenish colored and contained white angular feldspar inclusions.

    But when they tested it with a Geiger counter, they found it was no typical lunar rock. They found it contained high levels of radioactive uranium, thorium and potassium. Gamma ray-spectroscopy lab tests told them that the ratios between these elements fit only one enigmatic group of lunar rocks called "KREEP," the acronym of K for potassium, REE for rare earth elements, and P for phosphate.

    "At that moment, it was clear that the rock had something to do with the large Imbrium impact basin, the right eye of the man in the moon," Gnos et al. report on the Web at http://www.geo.unibe.ch/sau169. The Imbrium impact basin on the lunar nearside is the only area where KREEP rocks are found. KREEP rocks are known both from samples returned by the Apollo missions and by NASA's Lunar Prospector Orbiter radioactivity survey in 1998-99.

    The scientists conducted a battery of laboratory tests to piece together a detailed history of the meteorite, named Sayh al Uhaymir (SaU) 169. They summarize SaU 169's history:

    • At 3.909 billion years ago, plus or minus 13 million years - An asteroid collides with the moon, forming the 1160 km (720-mile) diameter Imbrium impact basin. Crushed and molten rocks mix and solidify to form the main rock type in meteorite SaU 169.

    • At 2.8 billion years ago - A meteorite hits the moon, forming the 25 km (15-mile) diameter Lalande crater south of the Imbrium basin. The impact blasts material, including the main rock type in SaU 169, from depth and deposits it as an ejecta blanket around the crater. The ejecta there mixes with other lunar soil.

    • At 200 million years ago - Another impact brings the rock that will become a meteorite to within a half-meter (20 inches) of the lunar surface.

    • At less than 340,000 years ago - Another impact hits the moon, producing a crater a few kilometers in diameter and ejects SaU 169 from the moon. The scientists studied NASA images and identified a young, 3 km (1.8-mile) diameter crater 70 km (43 miles) north-northeast of Lalande as the meteorite's likely launch site. Jull measured beryllium 10 in SaU 169 and determined the meteorite's moon-to-Earth transit time at around 300,000 years. He also measured carbon 14 in SaU 169, which shows the meteorite fell in present-day Oman around 9,700 years ago, plus or minus 1,300 years.

    "Without the Apollo and Luna sampling programs, and especially the huge advance in knowledge of the Moon acquired during investigations in the last 20 - 30 years, we would only be able to tell that SaU 169 is an exceptional lunar rock," the scientists said on their Website. "Without background information from such missions as Clementine and Lunar Prospector, we could never have linked ages and chemical data with lunar surface information."

    "SaU is a rock which demonstrates impressively how rocks can travel, like a ping-pong-ball, from one body to another," they said

    Fonte:  http://spaceflightnow.com/news/n0408/21meteorite/


    Abraços

    José Geraldo Mattos
     
    Gosta de fotografia? : http://www.terra.com.br/fotos/album.cgi/633910
    ___________________________________________
    Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina
    HU - Serviço de Controle Financeiro S/N
    Trindade, Florianópolis, SC,Brasil
    CEP 88.049-000 Fone (48) 9914.5078 ( 48) 331.9868
    http://www.gea.org.br/scf
    ___________________________________________

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